Language Variety

Pregunta	Respuesta
Peter Trudgill, Norwich Study 1974	Lower classes pronounced alveolar consonant, 'walkin'', upper classes pronounced velar nasal, 'walking'
The North and South Gap - wealth, employment and Standard language	-Since the 1970s, a gap has been growing between North and South England; decline in wealth for North, and increase in wealth in South. South encourage Standard language for employment; Northerns do not
Migrants in Milton Keynes; typical pattern of migrants	Migrants came to Milton Keynes in the 1950s for a hope of somewhere better to live; very open network, which is a typical pattern of migrants
Them as Demonstrative Pronoun	'Look at them spiders'
'What' As Subject Relative Pronoun	'That fish what he caught'
'Never' As Past Tense Negator	'No I never, Charlotte!!'
Metathesis	Changing medial parts of a word, e.g. 'foilage' from 'foliage'
General Patterns in Occupational Jargon	-Phrasal Verbs - verb+particle, such as 'I'm on it' -Broadened terms - mouse now can mean a computer mouse -Dysphemisms such as the 'departure lounge' aforementioned
Rhotacism	adding R sounds
Isogloss	A geographical boundary of particular linguistic features
Lenition	The softening of stops - 'block' like 'loch' - Liverpudlian
Features of Geordie Dialect (continued); isolated, Scotland, merger, traditions, natural	-As Newcastle isn't geographically isolated, it plays into the accommodation theory as words have died out easily -Geordie picked up Scottish lexical items, as it's on the border with Scotland -Nurse/Square merger -Dialectal changes as words die out and traditions fade -It is natural for language to change - progress versus decay
'Grassroots strike back'	Rosewarne's comment on estuary English in 1984
Features of Geordie Dialect (continued); changing, distinction, understanding	-Reflectionist - Geordie dialect changes with the times -One of the most distinctive accents of the British Isles -Geordie have had to accommodate their dialect in order to be better understood
Howard Giles' Capital Punishment Experiment	-Giles presented five groups of students with an identical set of arguments on capital punishment (mixed guise) -One group read a printed text, other four were oral presentations spoken in different accents -One group heard an RP speaker, another a Somerset speaker, spoken in different accents
Qualities of RP	Received pronunciation is geographically non-regional, and has qualities that are no longer desirable
Howard Giles' Capital Punishment Experiment (continued)	-Students were most impressed with the RP accent -Regional accents scored most highly -Student were more likely to change their view when hearing regional accents rather than RP
Rosenstock (rose in stock) - Greying World	There is now too big of a linguistic gap between the young and old for sufficient communication
Jenny Cheshire, Peer Groups, 1980	-Cheshire identified eleven non-standard features and measured the frequency in boys and girls' speech in adventure playground -Focused on grammatical variants -Group A was middle class and disapproved of criminal activities -Group B was working class and approved of criminal activities
Jenny Cheshire, Peer Groups, 1980	-Cheshire identified eleven non-standard features and measured the frequency in boys and girls' speech in adventure playground -Focused on grammatical variants -Group A was middle class and disapproved of criminal activities -Group B was working class and approved of criminal activities
Rise-Fall Intonation	Typical of Estuary English
Linguistic Integration	When migrants learn the native language of their settlement
Language Repertoire	The idea that everyone can have plurilingual competence
Jenny Cheshire - Peer Groups in Reading, 1980	-More use of non-standard features within Group B (working class group) -Cheshire concluded that patterns of non-standard usage was important for younger children to identify themselves as part of a group
Trudgill on Non-Standard English	-It is not a language, but just a variety; not an accent, but a dialect
Post-Creole Continuum	Once a creole has been established, it will evolve according to the culture and influences, such as Sue Fox's MEYD
Linguistic Imperalism	Transferring a language to other countries in order to demonstrate power
Features of Estuary; happY, 'hewwo', 'tishoo', 'mawth'	-HappY tensing -L-Vocalisation when an L sound is replaced by a vowel or semi-vowel to velarise (retracting tongue from palate), e.g. 'hewwo' -Yod Coalescence - blending of gliding vowels 'y' with stops, e.g. 'tishoo' -Mouth-Vowel Monothongs - 'mouth' becomes 'mawth'
Globish	The simplification of the most common English words to be spoken by second-language users
Features of Estuary English (continued); 'what is tha'?', divergence	-T-glottalling - taking away T-stops, e.g. 'what is tha'?' -Glotalling - metathetical removal of glottal sounds, e.g. 'wa'er' -Spoken around Thames estuary/South East -Tries to diverge from RP
Kachru's Model of Global English	-The inner circle= English in its original spread -Outer circle= English spread through colonisation by Britain in Africa/Asia where English is not the native tongue -Expanding circle= English plays no historical or governmental role; it is only used for international communication (China, Brazil)
Barrie Rhodes on Why Dialects Differ; language breaks, moving away, W	-Language breaks into dialects as populations spread over larger areas -People who move furthest away from their homeland preserve older patterns of speech -We still pronounce 'W' the Old English way -Whereas Germany pronounce it like 'V'
McArthur's Model of Global English	Inner circle= word Standard English -Next circle= made of regional standards that are emerging -Outer layer= local varieties that have similarities with emerging/regional standards -English spread through colonisation
William Labov - Martha' Vineyard Study	-Martha's Vineyard is an island on the north east coast of America 'Labov interviewed 69 people from different ages, ethnic groups etc -Labov conversed with the participants, leading them towards uttering certain vowels -He found that locals pronounced dipthongs with a more central point, and that participants from the ages of 30-60 were more inclined to do this, than the young or old
Barrie Rhodes on Why Dialects Differ (continued); English triangle	-Dialect spoken by wealthiest/most powerful selection of the population takes over as 'Standard' dialect; -This is true of the English triangle between London, Oxford and Cambridge
Linguistic Diversity	A way of representing the amount of living languages; especially seen in Canada where English and French are the national languages
International Phonetic Alphabet	Over 160 symbols used to represent the sounds in spoken language -That symbol that look a bit like a droopy n, is the one Trudgill experiments on
Mark Sebba on London Jamaican (continued); 16th century, pidgins, code-switching	-In the 16th century, people were brought over from the Caribbean to English during slave trading -Jamaicans spoke minimal English, therefore the Jamaicans had to create a pidgin to communicate with British natives. This is where code-switching groups from
Rosewarne on Estuary English	-Estuary coined the term 'estuary English' in 1984, and described it as a 'variety of modified regional speech' -It was first spoken by the banks of the Thames and its estuary, but since then has spread Westerly, even to Cornwall -Setter now described 'estuary English' as an 'umbrella dialect'
Decreolization	When creoles become standardised
Recreolization	When creoles are modified, e.g. natives from the West Indies came to Britain
Sue Fox on MEYD (continued); students	-Students from white, Anglo-Saxon backgrounds spoke the same dialect as Arabic, or South Americans etc
Sociolinguistic Maturation	-The age at which a speaker becomes less susceptible to the influence of different varieties on their own language usage -Sets in around late teens-early twenties -Children are much more likely to modify or vary their language
Colloquial Language Study at King's College London, 1995	-Research on which colloquialisms had the most synonyms -Drink/drugs lexis had the most synonyms - 17.46%, e.g. 'hammered', 'bladdered' etc
William Labov - New York Study, 1960s	-Linguistic variables are attached to socio-economic class -Most affluent New Yorkers would pronounce the dental fricatives; 'TH' in 'thirty third street'; -Whereas least affluent would use a 't' form; -Middle class would use a variable in-between these two
Language Variation	Variation is caused by the way social groups are formed by their shared experience
Peter Trudgill on Standard English (continued); D,C,S	-Standard= determination, codification and stabilisation -Standard is not defined - capital or non-capital?
Dialect Prestige	Basolect= low prestige Mecrolect= medium prestige Acrolect= high prestige
Basil Bernstein - Elaborative and Restrictive Codes	-Working class speak in a restricted code -Middle class speak in an elaborative code -Elaborative code= a vast amount of linguistic alternatives Restricted code- little to no other alternatives - very predictive Restricted codes represent a communion based culture (solidarity) - and should not be disvalued
Ellen Ryan - Status and Solidarity	-These represent the attitudes that people have towards different speakers -Status= language independence -Solidarity= language community
Hopper & Zahn	Regional varieties score highest in terms of solidarity
Paul Kerswill's Research on Milton Keynes and Reading - Dialectal Levelling; vowels	-Emergence of vowel-fronting in Milton Keyne,which is similar to estuary English -The same can be said for Reading
Jane Stuart-Smith	There are estuary features in the Glaswegian accent, such as TH-fronting
Paul Kerswill on Koineisation in Milton Keynes; study, conclusions, network	-Kerswill recorded fourty-eight Milton Keynes-born children, from three different ages groups (four, eight and twelve); the caregivers of each child, and elderly residents -Found that koineisation occurs in the children's generation -Social network characteristic are crucial to the outcomes of koineisation
Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); 'do', generations	-Longer term changes of koineisation= auxiliary of the word 'do' -Koineisation usually takes two or three generations to complete
Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); change, settlements, koines, external, internal	-Koineisation leads to dramatic, rapid change -It occurs in new settlements which people have migrated to from different language areas -'Koines'= speech of 'new towns', such as Milton Keynes -External social factors of change such as migration -Internal factors of change such as structure of language and phonology occur because of a structural imbalance
Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); older generations, emergence, 1950s	-Older generations were unaffected by Kerswill's study -Koines emerge separately from source dialects; which do not interfere with their use -Milton Keynes was created as a city in the 1950s - its population has quadrupled
Aziz Corporation, 2003	-An image consultant firm researched the perception amongst leading business people -Researched along the lines of the status and solidarity model -Half of the businessmen found regional accents to be a disadvantage in business -Scottish accent was seen as useful; whilst the Cockney accent was seen as dishonest
Laughter Study - Lesley Harbige, Aberdeen University	-Asked four-thousand people to listen to the same joke told in eleven regional accents (matched guise methodology) -The Brummie accent was considered the funniest, but also the least intelligent
Intelligence Study - Dr Lance Workman of Bath Spa University	-Asked fourty-eight people to compare accents -Aim of the study was to find out about stereotypes -Compared Yorkshire accent with Brummie accent and RP, whilst looking at photos of models, they then repeated this in silence
Intelligence Study - Dr Lance Workman of Bath Spa University (continued)	-RP was ranked as the highest by fourty-eight participants -Brummie accent scored the lowest intelligence rating -Conclusion: accent had no impact on beauty, yet it significantly affected the rating of intelligence
William Labov - Overt & Covert Prestige	Overt Prestige= the way language forms acquire prestige and acceptance. Is promoted by society Covert Prestige= language forms acquiring prestige because they differ from accepted values
Milroy's Study of Open & Closed Networks in Belfast	-Studied closed-networks of high density -Gave each village a network score depending on the closeness -Closed-network - where contacts know everyone -Closed-networks were defined by Milroy as 'norm enforcers', as a high network score correlated with the high rate vernacular/non-Standard forms
Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger - Communities in Practice, 1991	The idea that participating with others in using a language variety is central to learning and strengthening the variety
Creoles	-Nativised by children, unlike pidgins
Mark Sebba on London Jamaican; 17th and 18th centuries, sugar plantations, patois	-Jamaica's creole roots from the impact of British colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries; -The use of West-African slaves working sugar plantations in Jamaica affected this. The language that then ensured between the English and Jamaicans formed the Jamaican creole -Patois= London Jamaican+Jamaican creole+cockney+RP
Mark Sebba on London Jamaican (continued); verb aspects, immigrants; today...	-Verb aspects are created from the addition of words, e.g. 'wen't' is a main verb to create a past participle, e.g. 'me wen't go to da shops' -London Jamaican has evolved for the language needs of immigrants that have settled in England -Today, Jamaicans speaks a weaker form of this creole with varying degrees of standards
David Crystal's Language of Technology: Rebus	words represented graphologically
David Crystal's Language of Technology: Nonce Formation	misspelled words deliberately put together
Mark Sebba on Jamaican Creole (continued); suffixes, copulas	-Tenses and aspects are shown by adding additional words or particles to the main verb, rather than by adding inflectional suffixes as found in Standard English -They use small particles as copulas, e.g. 'deh'='is'
David Crystal's Word of Technology: Eye-Dialect Form	Non-standard spelling for pronunciation - George P. Krapp
Mark Sebba's Study on Catford Girl's Possee	Jamaican girls are the main promoters of change, as they use dense amounts of code-switching
David Crystal's Language of Technology: Concord Rule Breaking	when agreements are impoverished, e.g. 'he ain't'
David Crystal's Language of Technology: Non-Standard Symbol Combinations	e.g. ';)' and '@'
Code-Switching	Switching between different language varieties or languages within an utterance
David Crystal's Language of Technology: Internal Sentence Punctuation	'Omg im on tumblr cant breathe what the hell is life i cant even'
David Crystal's Language of Technology: Emotive Punctuation Sentences	E.g. 'Love mi nan!!!!!!!'
The British Empire & Global English; interactions, 'kangaroo'	-The English language changed as the Empire moved across the world, as the settlers in England interacted with the natives; -Therefore, new words were added to the English vocabulary such as 'kangaroo'
David Crystal's Rule For Technology, 2001	-No rules for emailing; -Crystal made the rule that you should email everyone as though you were emailing your mother
Texting - Logogram	A grapheme that represents a word or morpheme
David Crystal - 2B Or Not 2B	-Some texts are grammatically complex
John Humphrys on Texting	'Texters are vandals to our language'
John Sutherland on Texting	'Texting is penmanship for illiterates'
Migration; languages in London, Indian and West Indies, 1700s	-More than three hundred languages are spoken in London -Immigrants from the Indian subcontinent and West Indies have added variety and diversity, due to the slave trade; -And British Empire expanded in 1700s, where English was made the dominant language in Africa, India, Australia etc
David Crystal's 2B Or Not 2B on Initialisms	-Initialisms such as 'IOU' date back to 1618 -Johnathan Swift - abbreviation was a 'barbarous custom'
Dominant Forms in Global English	British and American English are the most dominant forms of English
Peter Stevens on Global English	English across the world may lead to the extinction of many other languages
Australia Soap Influence on English	The rising intonation in Britain was inspired by Australian soaps in the 1990s
Hinglish & Engrish	-Hinglish is taught across many schools in India -Engrish is the summation of the idiosyncratic ways that East Asian languages translate Asian concepts into English -Phonetic patterns in Asia are very different to England - no common ground -Symbol based structures of Asian countries are incompatible with English
Chinese Pidgin English	-The world 'pidgin' comes from a Chinese pronunciation of 'business' -CPE began as early as the 17th century
Features of Irish; aka, 'tum-ti', 'happenin'', rhotic, vernacular, dipthongs	-Also known as hiberno-English -Trochaic 'tum-ti' -G-dropping -Rhotic - strong R sounds, influenced by old French -Irish is part of the oldest vernacular in Europe -Breaking of vowel dipthongs, e.g. 'near'
Pidgins	-No native speakers -Evolved from a main source language, but is less grammatically developed -Spoken in particular contexts, rather than in a native context
Creoles	-Grew out of pidgins -More established than pidgins, as second generations are beginning to use them
Irish (continued); island, syntax structure, 'I come home for the Christmas', 'do' and 'be', 'they do running fast', 'getting wash on'	-Since Ireland is an island (woah lol), it has resisted dialectal levelling (Paul Kerswill) -Old English syntactical sentence structure (V,S,O) -Extended use of the definite article, e.g. 'I come home for the Christmas' -Verbs 'do' and 'be' are paired as auxiliary verbs -Forms present continuous tense, e.g. 'they do running very fast' -Prepositional phrases, e.g. 'getting a wash on'
William Labov on American English	-Double /t/ was modeled on British patterns -Boston, like Liverpool was easily influenced due to its docks and trade -American English was propelled when American gained independence from Britain in Philadelphia -America wanted to sound more British before World War I, and less so after World War I; -America then gained a national identity through language
Features of The Black Country; prestige, style, conjunctions, 'fu'	-The accent is generally perceived as a basolect -Middle of Britain -Generally speak with a negative capability -Syndeton- use of many conjunctions -Lenition - taking away stops, e.g. 'for' becomes 'fu'
Pluricentric Languages; national identity, no dominance	-A language with several standard variations, e.g. 'American English', 'Australian English' -Usually arises when the language and national identity of speakers do not coincide -English is a 'symmetrical' language, since there is no clear cultural dominance between the different languages
Paul Kerswill's Research on Reading's Accent; sounding more like...,Older people and young people's accents; London	-Reading's accent is changing to sound more like a London accent -Older people have the Berkshire accent, which sounds more like a West Country accent; -Younger people have the London accent, due to the expansion of London
Paul Kerswill's Research on Reading's Accent (continued); commuting, prevention of homogenisation	-As commuting and travelling becomes easier, there is dialectal levelling -However, close-knit communities prevent a pure, homogenised British voice
The Evolution of Global English; first language, contributions	-English has been adopted as the first common language of several countries of business; -Internet and multimedia has contributed to this
Sue Fox- Multi-Ethnic Youth Dialects; influences	-Research focused on the dialects of youths from a variety of different ethnic groups across London -Strong influences drawn from the influences of several other languages, creoles and culture sources
Paul Baker on Polari	-Focused on variety used from 1930s-1970s -Included borrowings from Italian -Rhyme/backslang
Leet; mode, formed, characters, spelling, 'creamage'	-Almost an exclusively written mode form -Formed in the 1980s -Has alphanumeric characters -Ever-changing spelling so information cannot be found -Bound morphemes are used to create abstract noun forms, such as 'creamage'
Features Of Essex Accent; vowels, migration, hybrid between, 'first', W, V and T, wa'er	-Raised vowels -People moved out of central London to East London - bringing the cockney accent with them -A mix of the cockney and Estuary accent -TH-fronting - 'thirst' becomes 'first' -W, V and T often interchanged -Glottal Stop - 'wa'er'
Michael Halliday on Anti-Languages	-Halliday formed nine criteria for an anti-language; one of them being that; -An anti-society is a society which is set up within another society as an alternative -Metaphorical modes of expression are the norm -Anti-languages are the lingua franca of an anti-society
Cryptolects; Tuscany	-Came from Italy -Used by priests in Tuscany for both secular and religious people -Now a secret language often used by drug dealers
Cant	The language used by thieves
Malcolm Petyt and Social Climbing in Bradford, West Yorkshire (1985)	-Concentrated on initial H being dropped (H-dropping) and measured its instances -The lower the socioeconomic group, the more occurrences there were of H-dropping -In social mobility, speech would be adapted towards RP speech (less H-dropping)
Features of Cockney English; 'bovva', ''at', 'wa'er', 'cowt'	-Loss of dental fricatives- 'bother' becomes 'bovva' -H-stopping -Glottal Stops - water=wa'er -Dipthong alterations - 'coat' becomes 'cowt'
Prison Argot; original definition, incarcerate's slang, endemic	-Argot originally referred to 'brotherhood' 'Many incarcerates involved before sentence to prison with their own slang; -There are therefore combinations between institute-specific and criminal terminologies -Incarceration produces an endemic in group language
Received Pronunciation; 2%, a D, positive prestige, Trugill	-Around 2% of Britons today speak RP in its purest form -A sociolect, not a dialect -Positive Prestige - tendency to align our idiolects to a favoured dialect -Sociologically, women are more likely to adopt this pattern (Trudgill)
Prison Argot (continued); Northern and Southern states	-Glossaries from Southern states contain Spanish terms, such as 'placa' for 'guard'; -North include African American slang such as 'fish' for a new inmate
Features of Geordie; coal mining, assimilation, village, Kevin Watson, M & U	-Much of Geordie has died out; coal miners used to talk in 'pitmatic' -There has been an assimilation of dialects to form a language standardisation -Dialectal changes as we become part of the 'global village' -Kevin Watson - 'Newcastle is no longer a dialectal island' -Modernisation and Urbanisation move dialects closer together
Features of Geordie (continued); class, preservation; not viable, schooling	-Employment and class are now less relevant factors -Dialects tend to be best preserved in rural, close-knit communities -Not viable in an industrial city like Newcastle -Schooling is an anti-dialectal force as it encourages Standard English
York; heart of..., lexicon remained from...	-York was at the heart of Danelaw, which was the viking kingdom in Britain -Much lexicon has remained from Old Norse
Navy Jackspeak; 'abeam'	-Sociolect of the Royal Navy -Mainly lexical and non-standard, e.g. 'abeam' means something that is opposite/adjacent to something else
Features of Liverpudlian; influence, sing-song, 't', filler, 'worra', guttural, 'bOOk'	-Has a significant influence from Irish speakers -Prosody - a sing-song way of talking -Affricated Consonants - 't' -'Ay' as a filler -Assimilation - 'worra' instead of 'want a' -Guttural dropping -Elongated medial vowels, e.g. 'bOOK'
Adam Fox on Medical Jargon; register, 'biparental', 'departure lounge'	-Adopts more than one register -Latinate forms, such as 'biparental' -Dysphemisms such as 'departure lounge' used to refer to the geriatric ward of hospitals
Features of Liverpudlian (continued); 'our mam', Kevin Watson, Paul Kerswill, postal town, homogeneous accent, happY tensing	-HappY tensing -Substitution of possessive pronoun to collective pronoun, e.g. 'our mam' -Kevin Watson - 'Liverpool remains a dialectal island' -Paul Kerswill - 'Liverpool has resisted dialectal levelling' -A postal town; used to trade, therefore language is fast-spoken and economic -Loss of a homogeneous Northern accent
Types of Pronunciation	Nurse/Square Merger: Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast Mirror/Nearer Merger: Dublinese Cheer/Chair Merger: Early Modern English sequence now used in the North Stir/Steer Merger: West Country, e.g. 'ear'= 'ur'
Epenthesis	adding extra letters, e.g. 'doggles'
Epenthetic Inversion	removing letters

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