Flashcards on Gender and Crime (1.7)

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Which two sociologists point out that official statistics on gender and crime have remained largely the same over time?	Frances Heidensohn and Marisa Silvestri.
If official statistics are to be believed, which gender are significantly more likely to face legal trouble?	Males.
However, official statistics are not wholly reliable, so sociologists sometimes use self-report studies instead of or as well as official statistics. Which sociologist used self-report studies to support official statistics?	Tim Newburn.
Newburn found that the data from self-report studies supported the picture provided by official statistics. However, what did the data also suggest?	The difference in male and female offending rates might not be as recorded in conviction statistics.
The implication that official statistics might not accurately record male and female offending rates raises what question?	Whether men and women are treated equally in the criminal justice system.
One possible explanation for the underrepresentation of women in crime statistics is that female crime may exist but simply go unrecorded and unreported. Who first proposed this explanation?	Otto Pollak.
Pollak proposes the concept of 'hidden female offenders' - women who are naturally skilled at deceiving people. Why is this, according to Pollak?	Because they have to hide their menstruation due to traditional taboos.
Unsurprisingly, Pollak's theory has faced heavy criticism. Which feminist is particularly critical of Pollak?	Frances Heidensohn.
What does Heidensohn think of Pollak's theory?	She argues that it is nothing more than male bias based on a stereotypical view of women.
Which two sociologists provide evidence for the chivalry thesis?	Michael Haralambos and Martin Holborn.
What evidence did Haralambos and Holborn provide?	- Women are more likely to be given cautions instead of being prosecuted. - Women are less likely than men to be sent to prison when convicted (27% versus 14%)
What is the average sentence given to male offenders convicted for robbery?	34 months.
What is the average sentence given to female offenders convicted for robbery?	25 months.
However, raw figures like those above may not tell the whole story. Why?	Differences in sentencing are likely to be affected by a number of factors (e.g. the severity of the offence) rather than just gender.
Which sociologist fully controlled all factors that had the potential to influence sentencing?	Roger Hood.
What did Hood still find?	Women were still about a third less likely than men to be given custodial sentences, even when all factors are taken into consideration.
Despite the above evidence, how do most sociologists feel about the chivalry thesis?	They are against it.
Which sociologist found that, contrary to Hood's claims, that the severity of an offence does indeed have a significant impact on sentencing?	Kate Steward.
The claim that women are being treated more leniently has also been contradicted. In 2004, Home Office research indicated that the courts are doing what to women?	Giving them harsher sentences for less serious offences.
Which sociologist points out that, contrary to the chivalry thesis, the rates of imprisoned women have steadily risen since the early 21st century?	Carol Hedderman
Feminists argue that rather than being chivalrous, the criminal justice system is actually biased against women. What does Sandra Walklate argue about the court's treatment of female victims?	In rape trials, the female victim is essentially placed on trial (e.g. "you were in the wrong for being intoxicated). This victim-blaming results in the majority of rapists being found not guilty.
Similarly, evidence indicates that female victims of human-trafficking for the purposes of sex work are treated more harshly than the actual traffickers. Which feminist provides evidence for this?	Louise Westmarland.
Rather than being consistently biased in favour of one gender or the other, the criminal justice system may simply be 'gendered'. What is meant by this?	Males and females experience the system differently. Both genders receive advantages, but they both also suffer disadvantages. It may be the case that one gender receives more advantages than the other, but this is merely a by-product of the difference in treatment.
Which feminist examines how the gendered nature of the criminal justice system typically puts women at a disadvantage?	Frances Heidensohn.
Heidensohn argues that women who deviate from the norms of behaviour associated with femininity are treated particularly badly. How are they viewed?	As 'double deviants', breaking not only the general norms of society but also the norms of womanhood.
How are double deviants treated?	They are treated more severely - for example, sexually promiscuous young girls are more likely to be taken into care than sexually promiscuous young boys.
What similar conclusion did Kate Steward reach?	The final decision as to whether a woman should be remanded in custody is often based on gender-linked moral judgements about the worth of the individual.
However, which sociologist counters Heidensohn's and Steward's claims by arguing that the differences in sentencing for men and women shouldn't necessarily be seen as bias?	Carol Hedderman.
Why does Hedderman believe that gender differences in sentencing shouldn't necessarily be seen as bias?	Because men and women can be affected by being sent to prison in different ways and often have different circumstances. (e.g. the impact of a prison sentence on a woman with childcare responsibilities can be greater than those on a man without such responsibilities).
One explanation as to why women are more likely to conform to the law than men is the biological explanation. What does this explanation argue?	Women have a natural desire to be nurturing and caring. These values simply do not coincide with crime and therefore we see less female offenders.
However, which sociologist argues that menstrual factors can influence a minority of women to commit crime in certain circumstances?	Katharina Dalton.
On the other hand, by attributing the small proportion of female crime to hormones and/or menstruation, what does Dalton fail to explain?	If all women produce female hormones and experience menstruation, why do female crime rates vary between societies and over time?
Why does Tim Newburn criticise the biological explanation?	He argues that there hasn't been any convincing research that links hormones to criminality.
An alternative explanation for the gender differences in offending rates is the sex-role theory. What does this argue?	It argues that women are less likely than men to commit crime because they are socialised to behave in a particular 'feminine' way, which limits their ability and opportunity to offend.
Functionalist theories of the family coincide with the sex-role theory. How?	Functionalists believe women assume an expressive role, which is focused on childrearing. This provides girls with a clear role model, one that emphasises care and support (traits incompatible with crime).
Albert Cohen provided a similar argument. According to Cohen, why is delinquency is mainly carried out by males?	Because women have the main role in socialisation, many boys go without a positive male role model.
While sex-role theory partially explains female offending, it doesn't provide a holistic explanation. Which two sociologists found that women often give a variety of reasons for their criminality, many of which are not related to sex-role socialisation?	Diane Caddle and Debbie Crisp.
Which reasons did women give for their criminality that bear no relation to sex roles?	- Poverty. - Unemployment. - Intoxication.
The biological and sex-role theories characterise females as being less aggressive than males. Which theory contradicts this?	The liberationist theory.
The liberationist theory suggest that the increase in female crime rates are linked to what?	Women's freedom from traditional forms of social control and their growing acceptance of 'male' roles.
Martyn Denscombe believed that the increase in female crime rates is a result of more and more women assuming masculine roles. According to Denscombe, what are females now as likely as males to engage in?	Edgework.
Sallie Westwood developed similar ides. What concept did she believe has limited our understanding of crime?	The concept of the 'fixed female identity'.
Westwood argues that identities are constantly being reconstructed and reframed. As such, how should we respond to the concept?	We should reject it, as it is important to understand how women reconfigure their identity and how this might link to crime.
However, Heidensohn rejects the claims made by Denscombe and Westwood. What evidence does Heidensohn cite when arguing that women have not assumed 'male' roles?	Evidence from a number of other studies that show that convicted offenders typically score highly on psychological tests of femininity.
Heidensohn also disputes the argument that increasing female crime rates can be linked to women's liberation. Why?	She points out that most women involved in crime are poor and/or working-class and therefore are less likely to have experienced the benefits of women's liberation.
According to Heidensohn and Silvestri, what might the increase in female crime rates be the result of?	Increased criminalisation of women due to the media sensationalising female violence.
Heidensohn argues that, contrary to the above claims, women are simply less likely to commit crime. Why?	Because they are subjected to closer levels of social control than men are. This is known as the social control theory.
Heidensohn points out a wide range of informal sanctions that discourage women from straying from 'proper' behaviour. Give examples:	- Gossip. - Ill repute. - The comments of men.
According to Heidensohn, there are three settings in which there is greater social control exercised over women than men. What are they?	1. The home. 2. Public. 3. The workplace.
How are women controlled at home?	The responsibility of domestic labour and childcare is often placed on women. This keeps them in the home, which restricts their opportunity to offend. They may also be controlled through domestic violence.
How are women controlled in public?	Women may feel unwelcome or even unsafe to enter certain public spaces (e.g. walking home late at night) because of the risks that are involved (e.g. target for rape).
How are women controlled in the workplace?	Most superior positions are occupied by males. These men can use their position to exercise control over their female subordinates.
Which sociologist supports Heidensohn's theory by providing research that showed how parents subject their daughters to greater informal control than their sons?	John Hagan.
However, why can Heidensohn's work be criticised?	It is somewhat outdated and the social control of females is not as great as it was at the time of her study. Liberal feminists argue that many policies have been implemented to increase female freedom in recent decades.
Which other feminist sociologist uses social control theory to explain female crime rates?	Pat Carlen.
Carlen's work was heavily influenced by which other sociologist?	Trevor Hirschi.
According to Carlen, what two factors interact in explaining the offending of the women.	Class and gender - most female offenders come from working-class backgrounds.
According to Carlen, why do some women offend?	Because they have little reason to conform.
Conversely, most women choose to conform because they believe they have reason to. What is this reason?	The existence of 'class and gender deals'.
What does the class deal involve?	Sacrificing personal freedom and working hard in order to earn enough to gain access to consumer goods and enjoyable leisure.
What does the gender deal involve?	Accepting marriage or, at the very least, a long-term relationship with a man in exchange for security, happiness and fulfilment through family life.
What does Carlen think about the class and gender deals?	They are an illusion, a form of patriarchal ideology. In reality, family life often involves being subject to male control.
Although Carlen's study was based on a small sample, evidence from which report supports her belief that many female offenders come from deprived backgrounds?	The Corston Report.
While some sociologists attempt to explain the low offending rates of women, others attempt to explain the high offending rates of men. Which sociologist is perhaps best known for taking this approach?	James Messerschmidt.
Messerschmidt argues that a 'normative masculinity' exists within society. What does this term refer to?	The socially approved idea of what it takes to be a 'real man'.
Messerschmidt claims that masculinity is unnatural, something that men have to strive to achieve and have to constantly work at to maintain. They do this in a number of ways, depending on the particular male's access to power. What examples does Messerschmidt give?	Men with more power (e.g. businessmen) express their power through their control in the workplace. Men with less power (e.g. manual labourers) express their power by using violence in the home and/or on the street.
Why can normative masculinity be used to explain why men commit more crime than women?	Power and reputation (and thus masculinity) can be increased by committing the crime. Sometimes, this is the only way in which a man can achieve said masculinity, so it becomes their 'only option'.
Which other sociologist also uses the concept of masculinity to understand why men commit crime?	Simon Winlow.
Winlow stated that, in the past, working-class men were able to gain status through work in traditional industries, which meant there was very little organise crime. What social change impacted this?	The decline in full-time manual jobs, which meant that more and more men were unable to secure status in the workplace and subsequently searching for it elsewhere.
How did the search for status impact crime rates?	The use of violence became an increasingly important way of gaining status and achieving material success in male hierarchies.
Winlow's research provides an interesting case study of the relationships between which three elements?	Masculinity, crime and social change.
Both Messerschmidt and Winlow's explanations emphasise how a search for status and success can result in men turning to crime. However, what can they be accused of neglecting?	They arguably fail to explore how some men turn to crime not in search of status in success, but in search of excitement.
Which sociologist claims that committing crime provides thrill to the perpetrators, and it is this thrill that encourages perpetrators to continue offending?	Jack Katz.

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Flashcards on Gender and Crime (1.7)

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