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Fichas por Em Maskrey, actualizado hace más de 1 año
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Creado por Em Maskrey
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| Pregunta | Respuesta |
| How do David Held et al define globalisation? | The greater interconnectedness of social life and social relationships throughout the world. |
| According to the United Nations Development Programme, globalisation has resulted in the massive growth of which crimes? | - Dealing of illicit drugs. - Trafficking in weapons. - Trafficking in human beings. - Corruption. - Violent crimes. -War crimes. |
| What is the total value of transnational organised crime estimated by the United Nations to be per year? | Approximately £1 trillion. |
| However, it can be said that globalisation also helps to tackle crime. Give examples of how it does so: | - Greater international cooperation between police forces. - The widespread use of extradition agreements. - The increased sharing of information. - Greater efforts between countries to tackle money laundering. |
| Which sociologist argues that globalisation involves the development of transnational networks? | Manuel Castells. |
| Why have these criminal networks developed? | Because of the growth of the information age in which knowledge and goods can be moved quickly, easily and freely (or cheaply) across national boundaries. |
| The growth of the information age and existence of networks has resulted in the development of a global criminal economy in which there are complex interconnections between a range of criminal groups. Which groups does Castells give as examples? | The Russian and American Mafia, the Colombian drug cartel, the Chinese Triads and the Sicilian Cosa Nostra. |
| Why do criminal networks operate transnationally? | Because it reduces risks and increases profits. |
| Where do their criminal operations typically take place? | In countries where the government and law enforcement are fairly weak. |
| However, where do the networks often sell their 'products' (e.g. drugs)? | In richer countries with more profitable markets. |
| While many networks are transnational in scope, what are they often organised along? | National, regional or ethnic lines. |
| According to Castells, what is the biggest global criminal business? | The drugs trade. |
| Castells states that global criminal networks harm more than just the victims. What else do they negatively impact? | The economy, politics and culture of the world. |
| In a number of countries, organised crime is closely linked to corruption within the government. What can this distort and prevent? | Political policies and effective law enforcement. |
| Tim Newburn gives three consequences of globalisation in relation to crime. What are they? | 1. It can reduce the power of the state, making it difficult for countries to claim sovereignty. 2. It provides opportunities for committing crime in new ways. 3. It creates a new awareness of risk from foreign countries, e.g. terrorism. |
| Which socialist criminologist argues that the development of capitalism is the main driver for the globalisation of crime? | Ian Taylor. |
| How does capitalism assist global crime, according to Taylor? | Features of capitalism (e.g. marketisation processes and the privatisation of assets) help to increase globalisation. This creates conditions enabling the growth of both local and transnational crime. |
| Globalisation processes can therefore be seen as enabling crime. How do they encourage the elite to offend? | For the elite, the ability to move finance around the world with very little restriction allows a whole range of financial crimes (e.g. tax evasion, insider trading, etc.) |
| How do globalisation processes assist in organised crime? | It increases the opportunities to launder the profits from illegal activities. |
| How do globalisation processes indirectly cause more working-class crime, according to Taylor? | Global capitalism and international transport allow companies to move their production from Western countries to low-tax companies with poor employment laws. This has resulted in a decline in employment in Western countries, meaning some people are turning to crime to subsidise income. |
| Which sociologist argues that the decline in employment encourages the growth of small firms in Western Europe that avoid labour laws and operate outside the formal economy? | Vincenzo Ruggiero. |
| Furthermore, these companies often don't help to decrease the unemployment rate. Why? | They often recruit illegal immigrants because they can be paid less than the minimum wage. |
| Although globalisation can increase transnational crime, local organisations are also important. When studying criminal networks in the north-east of England, what did Dick Hobbs and Colin Dunningham find? | Most organised crime involves networks of interconnected criminals who work together occasionally, rather than well-integrated, permanent gangs. |
| Hobbs and Dunningham concluded that crime wasn't just organised globally but also locally. What term did they create to refer to this? | They refer to it as a 'glocal' system. |
| Globalisation is also closely linked to many crimes that are known as 'green crimes'. This is a wide category. Give examples of crimes that are included under it: | - Air pollution. - Graffiti. - Waste dumping. - Illegal trading of wildlife. - Littering. - Vandalism. |
| There is no single agreed definition of crimes against the environment. Narrower definitions tend to be framed in terms of illegality - crimes against the environment are only crimes if they have an illegal status. Which two sociologists hold this view? | Yingyi Situ and David Emmons. |
| Broader approaches argue that some actions that are currently legal should also be regarded as environmental crime. Name a sociologist who takes this approach: | Nigel South. |
| South develops an argument for understanding environmental crimes. What are the two elements who discusses? | 1. Primary environmental crimes. 2. Environmental law-breaking. |
| What does South mean by 'primary environmental crimes'? | These are crimes that are currently legal under international laws but, due to the extent of environmental damage they cause, they should come under the analysis of criminologists. |
| How are these so-called primary environmental crimes often referred to currently? | As 'environmental issues'. |
| Give examples of primary environmental crimes: | Air and water pollution, deforestation and species decline. |
| What does South mean by 'environmental law-breaking'? | These are crimes that are already illegal under international law but nonetheless are rarely enforced. |
| Give an example of environmental law-breaking: | The dumping of hazardous waste. |
| Some sociologists go even further than South, arguing that legal definitions of crime should be entirely disregarded and actions should be judged solely in terms of harm. What concept do these sociologists argue in favour of? | Zeminology. |
| What is zeminology? | The concept of social harm. Zeminologists argue that national and international laws are inadequate for judging whether actions should be regarded as criminal because laws reflect the narrow interests of the group in power, rather than those of wider groups. |
| According to Reece Walters, rather than using the term 'environmental crime' or 'green crime', how should we identify acts or omissions that threaten the long-term sustainability of life on Earth? | As 'eco-crime'. |
| Walters states that eco-crimes are crimes against nature, rather than crimes against individual humans or species. However, what does Walters also include in the category of eco-crime? | Actions that harm the wellbeing of humans or other species, without threatening long-term sustainability. |
| Thomas White supports Walters' view. He is critical of what he refers to as 'anthropocentric' definitions of crime. What does he mean by 'anthropocentric'? | The term refers to the belief that humankind is the most important element of existence. |
| What sort of approach does White advocate for? | An eco-centric approach that emphasises the interdependence of humans and the environment in which they live. |
| White argues that damaging the environment isn't just harmful in itself - what does it also damage? | Humans who rely on the environment for their survival. |
| One of the most influential theoretical approaches to understanding green crime is provided by Ulrich Beck. According to Beck, what has economic growth in more affluent countries resulted in? | A decline in the risks stemming for a lack of resources and an expansion of science and technology that have allowed humans to overcome risks stemming from the natural environment. |
| However, economic growth has brought with it new risks. Give examples: | - Risks of nuclear contamination. - Toxins in the environment. - Environmental damage caused by pollution. |
| Previously, the risks of a lack of resources and natural disasters were more likely to result in harm to lower social groups. However, what does Beck note about the risks we now witness in modern society? | They affect all social groups equally. |
| Why is there more global awareness of risks, according to Beck? | Because of increased publicity. |
| However, Beck has been criticised for suggesting that all classes are equally vulnerable to man-made risks. What does Philip Sutton point out? | The more affluent are able to live in parts of the world least affected by environmental damage. |
| Beck's ideas have been very influential but they are not completely relevant to the discussion of green crime. Why? | Because they deal only indirectly with the relationship between crime and the environment. They are also rather generalised in terms of explaining why green crimes occur in the first place. |
| Which sociologist put much more emphasis on the role of capitalism when discussing the cause of green crime? | Mark Halsey. |
| Halsey argues that green crime is caused by the dominance of capitalist ideology. Why? | Because capitalist ideology prioritises economic growth over the wellbeing of the environment. |
| More specifically, corporate crime is often blamed for environmental harm. Nigel South discusses the "corporate colonisation of nature". What does he mean by this? | He means that nature is exploited for corporate profit. |
| Reece Walters gives some examples of the corporate colonisation of nature. What are they? | 1. Biopiracy. 2. The corporate engineering of nature. |
| It is undeniable that capitalist corporations have been responsible for a great deal of crime and environmental harm. However, they are not solely to blame. Which two other organisations hold some responsibility? | 1. The state. 2. Organised crime. |
| However, if the definition of green crime is extended to include all damage to the environment, then who can arguably be held accountable? | Almost everyone in the world. For example, everyone who drives a car contributes to air pollution which in turn contributes to global warming. |
| Why are some states able to commit crime on a much bigger scale than is possible for individuals? | - They have access to vast amounts of resources. - They are more able to use violence and force because of their control of the police and military. - They can define what is legal and what is not. |
| Which two sociologists note that states are able to commit crime on a much bigger scale than individuals because of their ability to maintain secrecy over their actions? | Penny Green and Tony Ward. |
| What examples of state crime do Green and Ward provide? | - Genocide. - War crimes. - Violence by the police. - Grand corruption (where state elite steal a country's resources for themselves). |
| Which sociologist divides state crimes into four categories? | Eugene McLaughlin. |
| What are the four types of state crimes identified by McLaughlin? | 1. Political crimes. 2. Police crimes. 3. Economic crimes. 4. Social and cultural crimes. |
| State crime can be defined in a number of ways. Firstly, it can be defined in terms of breaking the laws of the society in which the crime occurs. However, what is the problem of this definition? | States may legalise actions that would typically be regarded as criminal and, even if the actions remain illegal, states will not prosecute themselves for offending. |
| A second approach is to base definitions of state crime on international law. However, this is also a problematic approach. Why? | International law is open to interpretation and difficult - sometimes impossible - to enforce. |
| A third, popular approach is to use the idea of human rights to provide a basis for determining what is and is not state crime. Which two sociologists adopt this approach? | Penny Green and Tony Ward. |
| This approach is in keeping with what concept? | Zeminology. |
| The approach raises the question of how 'human rights' are defined. Where does the most widely used definition of human rights come from? | The United Nations. |
| According to Sinšia Malešević, the UN's definition portrays human rights as universal. However, why have sociologists objected to the notion of universal human rights? | - It doesn't acknowledge that the very idea of 'rights' is a social construct and will inevitably vary from society to society. - The rights identified by the UN have a liberal, Western and individualist bias. |
| Nonetheless, critical social scientists insist that universal standards are possible and sociologists can identify harmful behaviours, regardless of local customs. In fact, Herman and Julia Schwendinger go even further than this. How? | They argue that it is the duty of sociology to support human rights and expose abuses by the state, even when this goes against the laws of the countries in which they are citizens. |
| However, Bryan Turner notes one major issue with the idea of universal human rights. What is it? | No one is able to enforce them. |
| Who pioneered the study of social reactions to state crime and human rights abuses? | Stanley Cohen. |
| How does Cohen define state crimes? | As "gross violations of human rights". |
| Despite the fact that human rights abuses are often extreme in nature, states often develop a culture of denial to respond to allegations. How many stages are there in this culture of denial? | Three. |
| What is the first stage in the culture of denial? | States simply deny that the event ever occurred, although this can often be challenged by non-governmental organisations and/or the victims. |
| What is the second stage in the culture of denial? | The state redefines what has occurred, labelling it as something other than an abuse of human rights. |
| What is the third stage in the culture of denial? | The state attempts to justify their abuse - for example, they may say that a breach of privacy was justified in ensuring public safety. |
| The justifications of abuse that states engage in has been referred to as "techniques of neutralisation" by which two sociologists? | David Matza and Gresham Sykes. |
| Cohen identifies five techniques of neutralisation. Give examples: | 1. Denial of responsibility (blaming someone else). 2. Denial of injury (claiming that no one was harmed). 3. Denial of victim (claiming that those who were harmed were deserving of harm). 4. Condemnation of the condemner (accusing the accusers). 5. Appeal to higher loyalties (dismissing the abuse as 'for the greater good'). |
| Cohen adds that ordinary citizens will go along with abuses of human rights in certain circumstances, which make techniques of neutralisation more effective. How does he refer to this compliance? | As "crimes of obedience". |
| Cohen argues that crimes of obedience are more likely to occur when what three conditions are met? | 1. There is authorisation by the state, which makes citizens feel a duty to obey. 2. There is routinisation of abuse, making it normalised and acceptable. 3. There is the dehumanisation of the 'enemy', erasing the normal morality. |
| Cohen's work can be used when examining why human rights abuses remain common despite active attempts to remove them. However, he does also make one optimistic acknowledgement. What is it? | Not everyone accepts human rights abuses and state crime - there is usually at least some who actively oppose them. |
| Cohen's work helps to explain why state crime involving human rights abuses are possible, even in societies that condemn these acts and regard them as immoral. However, what does it fail to explain? | Why human rights are abused in the first place. |
| Penny Green and Tony Ward argue that there are two main approaches that provide an explanation as to why human rights are abused. What is the first? | The integrated theory of crime. |
| Which two sociologists developed the integrated theory of crime? | Ronald Kramer and Ray Michalowski. |
| According to the integrated theory of state crime, three elements must be satisfied in order for crime to occur. What are the three elements? | 1. A motive. 2. An opportunity to commit the crime. 3. The failure of any control mechanism that might prevent the crime from occurring. |
| What is the second approach identified by Green and Ward? | The obedience approach. |
| What is the obedience approach exemplified by? | Cohen's ideas on crimes of obedience, which in turn derived from Stanley Milgram's study of people's willingness to cause harm to others. |
| According to Green and Ward, what must be done to these approaches in order to fully understand state crime? | They must be combined into a dialectical approach. |
| State crime does not always involve human rights abuses or the use of violence - quite often, it involves corruption that furthers the interests of both the state and some outside group. What is this sort of crime often motivated by? | A desire for power and/or financial gain. |
| This sort of crime is common in what Max Weber refers to as "patrimonial states". How do Green and Ward define this term? | As states based on "personal and economic ties between rulers and subordinates". |
| Although the blatant corruption that exists in patrimonial states is not so apparent in Western democracies, what is quite common? | Clientism. |
| What is meant by 'clientism'? | This is the corrupt granting of favours by politicians in return for financial or political support, motivated by the desire to retain power. |
| What key institution within the British legal system can be regarded as an example of clientism? | The House of Lords and the granting of peerages. |
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