Flashcards on Feminism (2.2)

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Feminist sociology is often seen as coming in distinct waves. When was the first?	The first can be traced back to Mary Wollstonecraft in 1972.
When was the second wave of feminism?	In the 1960s.
The second wave grew out of a wider civil rights movement in America. What is this phase of feminism known as?	The Women's Liberation Movement.
The Women's Liberation Movement encompassed some very radical approaches. What did they approaches aim to do?	Completely transform the relationship between males and females.
The Movement also included some more moderate approaches. What did these look for?	More rights for women.
When was the third wave of feminism?	In the 1990s.
Why sparked to third wave?	It was a response to the claims that the Women's Liberation Movement had achieved its aims, making feminism in modern society unnecessary.
Although the different waves of feminism have distinct ideas, they do have share certain beliefs. What are they?	All feminists believe every existing and historical society is/was patriarchal. They see gender inequality as the most important type of conflict in society and try to explain inequalities and differences between men and women and suggest solutions.
Additionally, they're critical of the claim that gender differences are simply a product of biological differences between men and women. Although some feminists see biology as having some influence, what do many believe?	Biology is insignificant in itself - what is significant is the way meanings are attached to biology.
The foundation upon which this view is based is a distinction between which two words?	'Sex' and 'gender'.
This discussion was first introduced by which psychiatrist?	Robert Stoller.
Which feminist elaborated Stoller's work?	Ann Oakley.
What is the difference between 'sex' and 'gender'?	'Sex' is used to refer to biological differences between men and women, while 'gender' is used to refer to the beliefs about what it means to be 'masculine' or 'feminine'.
The assumption behind this distinction is that there is nothing natural about the differences between men and women in any particular society. Rather, what are the differences a product of?	Culture, rather than nature.
Oakley supports this claim by providing examples of societies in which men's and women's roles are very different to those in our own society. What examples did she provide?	- Among Tasmanian Aborigines, it is women who do most of the hunting. - Among the Mbuti people, men are responsible for most childcare.
What is perhaps the most important contribution of feminism to sociology?	Feminism highlighted the limitations of existing sociological thinking.
How do feminists regard mainstream sociology, and why?	They regard it as 'malestream' because most of the central and widely accepted sociological theories were written by men, for men.
Which feminist identifies the ways in which sociology is malestream?	Pamela Abbot et al.
Firstly, according to Abbot, sociology is malestream because it is unrepresentative. Discuss:	Most research uses predominantly or entirely male samples, yet generalisations about people as a whole are made from the findings.
Secondly, sociology is malestream because issues of particular concern to women are neglected. Discuss:	Childbirth, domestic labour, women's health, women's leisure activities, sexism and violence against women are not researched as much as Abbot feels is necessary.
Thirdly, sociology is malestream because women are arguably presented in sexist ways in sociological research. Discuss:	For example, in most studies of juvenile gangs, women are marginalised and seen solely as girlfriends, rather than as individuals.
Finally, sociology is malestream because even when women are integrated into research, they are often merely added on to existing variables. Discuss:	Feminists believe that gender has a more significant impact on people's lives than other variables (e.g. class, race, etc.) and should be treated as such.
However, what does Abbott accept?	There has been considerable progress in countering malestream sociology, particularly in studies of sexuality, the body, identity and culture.
Although feminists broadly agree that society is patriarchal and sociology is malestream and that both require alteration, there are five distinctive feminist perspectives that adopt varying positions. What are the five perspectives?	1. Radical. 2. Marxist and socialist. 3. Liberal. 4. Black. 5. Postmodern.
Which wave is radical feminism particularly associated with?	Second-wave feminism.
Radical feminists adopt the most extreme position, believing that women are exploited by and subservient to men. What do radical feminists think of the improvements in the position of women we have seen in recent years?	They believe they are relatively superficial - fundamental inequalities remain largely unchanged.
Radical feminists see patriarchy as a universal feature of society. How can it be challenged?	With a fundamental restructuring of society.
Some radical feminists can be regarded as 'female supremacists'. What is meant by this?	They believe women are superior to men an that societies would be more effective if women were in charge.
Other radical feminists are 'female separatists'. What is meant by this?	They argue that women should live independently from men, because it is almost impossible to avoid male domination if the two genders live together.
However, proposed solutions to male dominance vary and partially depend on the explanations for inequality. One early sociological explanation of female oppression was put forward by which feminist?	Shulamith Firestone.
Firestone argued that there is a 'sexual class system' within our society. What does this system result from?	The biological family.
Why does the biological family put women at a disadvantage, according to Firestone?	Because they undergo pregnancy and childbirth and are hindered by menstruation, which makes them relative weak and vulnerable and thus limits their power. Men take advantage of this and monopolise power in society. The gender inequality is so normal that we now believe it is inevitable.
What is the only way to overcome this power difference?	To abolish pregnancy through the development of artificial wombs, thus freeing women from the biological constraints that put them at a disadvantage.
Which feminist denies that biology is the only or primary factor causing women's disadvantage?	Kate Millet.
According to Millet, several factors work together to keep women oppressed. Give examples of such factors:	- Ideological factors (these shape women's views of the world and men's views of women). - Sociological factors (women's roles and responsibilities limit them). - Educational and economic factors (women typically earn less and so are financially dependent on men). - Psychological factors (women internalise the above factors and come to see themselves as inferior to men).
What sort of status do women have, according to Millet?	A 'caste-like status' - they cannot escape the 'caste' they have been born into.
Radical feminism has offered an important challenge to traditional sociological views and has highlighted some very important features of women's oppression. However, they have received heavy criticism. According to liberal feminists, what do radical feminists underestimate?	The extent to which women have become more liberated in some societies, particularly our own.
What do difference, black and postmodern feminists criticise radical feminists of?	Assuming that all women are similar and share similar experiences and interests. In reality, women are not one homogeneous group and do have different experiences based on their sexuality, race, class, etc.
Marxist and socialist feminists believe that radical feminists place too much importance on what?	Violence, ideology and/or biology.
According to marxist and socialist feminists, what factors are the key to understanding the position of women in society?	Economic factors.
Generally, why are women economically disadvantaged, according to marxist and socialist feminists?	Because they do more unpaid labour (as housewives and mothers) and because they are typically less successful and on a lower income than men.
As such, marxist and socialist feminists believe that women will only achieve economic equality if they free themselves from other forms of inequality. How can they achieve this economic equality?	Through a proletarian revolution.
Which marxist argued that gender inequality had a materialist base?	Frederick Engels.
What prompted gender inequality, according to Engels?	In the primitive horde, there were no families as such and everyone had an equal share of goods. As such, there were no inequalities, gender or otherwise. However, when society began to develop, the concept of ownership was created. This led to the concept of inheritance - men wanted to ensure that their possessions were being passed on to their rightful heirs. This resulted in the institution of the family, which allowed men to guarantee which children were theirs. At this point, women became little more than breeding cattle.
However, why has Engels' theory been criticised?	It isn't based on empirical evidence.
Stephanie Coontz and Peta Henderson also provide a materialist explanation. They argue that men became dominant through the practice of 'patrilocality'. What is this?	Once married, wives would go to live with their husband's family, resulting in the men gaining control over women's labour and wealth. This gave men control over society.
In contemporary society, marxist and socialist feminists have suggested a number of ways in which patriarchal domination is maintained and how it assists capitalism. How does Fran Ansley describe women?	As 'takers of shit' - they absorb the frustrations of men, who are angry because of the exploitation they suffer at the hands of capitalist employers.
Which marxist feminist argues that women reproduce a labour force by raising children at no cost to capitalists?	Sharon Smith.
Marxist and socialist feminists argue that men have retained power because they have access to the best jobs and therefore have a higher income than women. However, what do marxist feminists arguably underplay?	The significance of non-material causes of inequality stemming from culture and differences between women (e.g. race).
By attributing gender inequality entirely to capitalism, what do marxist and socialist feminists fail to explain?	Continuing inequality in communist and socialist countries. They also don't provide an explanation for the many aspects of gender differences which have no obvious benefits for capitalists.
It can be argued that it is misleading to state that all women are in low-paid work, but it is undeniable that the average wages of female workers are still significantly lower than those of men. According to Lizzie Ward, what has further undermined the income of women working in the UK?	Globalisation, because it has created competition from low-wage economies.
Liberal feminism is not a distinctive sociological perspective as such. Rather, what can the term be applied to?	A range of approaches, all of which emerged out of the women's rights campaigns of second-wave feminism.
Rather than seeking revolution, what is the aim of liberal feminism?	It aims to prompt legal change and reforms.
What did Betty Friedan attribute the lack of equal opportunities between the genders to?	The way in which the mother and housewife roles dominated most women's lives.
Like other liberal feminists, Friedan argued that gender role socialisation and dominant cultural ideas about masculinity and femininity contributed to the subordination of women. How could these issues be addressed?	By challenging sex discrimination in the home, the education system, the workplace and the mass media. This would encourage non-sexist socialisation and ensure that both genders had equal rights in all areas of society.
Unlike marxist, socialist and some radical feminists, liberal feminists do not place much emphasis on social structure. Rather, what do they see as particularly important in creating inequality between men and women?	Cultural factors.
Liberal feminism has perhaps been the most influential of all feminist perspectives. Many of the reforms they have been advocates of have been implemented over recent decades. Give examples of Acts that protect women from discrimination in the workplace?	The Equal Pay Act 1970, the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, the Equality Act 2010.
Liberal feminists, much more than other feminists, believe that the position of women in society has improved. However, they believe equality is yet to be achieved. What problems do women still face, according to liberal feminists Natasha Walter?	They still suffer from low pay, lack of affordable childcare, the dual burden and domestic and/or sexual violence.
Additionally, Walter believes that sexism is returning to British culture, which creates new problems for women. Why is it returning, according to Walker?	- Popular culture increasingly portrays women in stereotypical ways and has made sexism not only acceptable, but respectable. - A hypersexual culture now exists, encouraging women to aspire to patriarchal ideas of feminine beauty. - Pornography is more popular than ever, shaping men's expectations of women.
What is the major strength of liberal feminism?	Its fairly moderate stance has allowed it to take action to improve the position of women in society without holding out for revolutionary change.
The significant reductions in gender inequality since the 1970s do appear to support its theoretical stance that what aspects of society are significant in maintaining patriarchal power?	The law, social attitudes and culture.
However, why do radical feminists like Germaine Greer criticise liberal feminism?	They argue that women have not been truly liberated and liberation will only occur when women don't have to be like men, or to dress and behave as men want them to, in order to succeed. Essentially, more radical change needs to occur.
Which third-wave feminist agrees that radical changes are still needed to liberate women fully?	Kristin Aune.
Aune notes that whatever limited success in reducing gender inequality Western countries have witnessed, women in poorer countries are still victims of patriarchal. However, what does Aune arguably underestimate?	The extent t which greater equality has been achieved in countries such as Sweden and Norway.
Dissatisfaction with radical, marxist, socialist and liberal feminism led to the development of black feminism. How do black feminists regard other types of feminism?	As 'ethnocentric' - they claim to address issues about women in general but actually concentrate on White women's experience in Western societies, at the expense of all other women.
According to black feminists, what have other feminists adopted with regards to black women?	A 'victim ideology' - they see black women as the helpless victim of sexism and racism.
Who was the pioneering black feminist?	Gloria Jean Watkins, better known as bell hooks.
According to bell hooks, what has given black women a unique insight into the nature of oppression?	The legacy of slavery.
Heidi Safia Mirza, a British black feminist, argues a distinctive black British feminism is essential. Why?	Because it challenges distorted assumptions that black British women are passive victims of racism, patriarchy and class inequality, by illustrating their struggle against racism, sexism and domestic violence.
Black feminism has also been influential in developing what other form of feminism?	Postcolonial feminism, which is concerned with gender inequalities that are the result of colonialism in Africa, Asia and Latin America (e.g. the AIDS/HIV epidemic in Africa).
Black feminism has succeeded in extending other feminist analysis and highlighting neglected areas of research. It has helped it highlight the value of using the experiences of oppressed women to understand the social world. However, what can it be accused of emphasising?	The difference of race between women at the expense of other differences (e.g. class, sexuality).
What wave of feminism is postmodern feminism linked to?	Third-wave feminism, which reflects on some of the perceived weaknesses of the second wave.
How do postmodern feminists follow some of the general views of postmodernists?	- They celebrate differences, rather than believing that all women share the same experiences. - They reject the idea that gender inequality can be solved through better planning.
Postmodern feminists therefore reject the idea of a single path to female liberation. How do they see attempts to achieve 'equality'?	As an acceptance of male rationality.
What heavily influenced postmodern feminism?	'Poststructuralism'.
According to poststructuralism, what has had a significant impact on the production of society?	Language.
Poststructuralism sees all aspects of society as social creations, arguing that significant changes can occur simply as a result of changing the way in which language is used. Following this line of thought, how can women's position be improved?	Through the deconstruction of masculine language and thinking.
How does Helene Cixous describe language, and why?	She describes it as 'phallocentric', because it is male-dominated and reflects a male view of the world.
Why does Sylvia Walby criticise postmodern feminism?	She argues that it neglects the degree to which the experience of oppression and inequality gives women a shared interest. While differences between women do exist, many still suffer from the same effects of patriarchy.
Which influential feminist's ideas highlight both the strengths and weaknesses of postmodern feminism?	Judith Butler.
Butler has adopted many of the arguments of postmodern feminism - for example, she attaches considerable importance to language in the creation of gender. However, what does she put much more emphasis on?	The performance of gender, rather than the mere use of language.
How does Butler refer to this performance of gender?	As 'performativity'.
Butler claims that everyday gestures and movements help to create the impression that there are essential differences between men and women. What does this suggest about existing feminist explanations of gender inequality?	Gender inequality and female oppression are more complex than any feminist perspective has grasped.
Feminism has made a substantial contribution to sociology in a number of ways. Give examples:	- It highlighted the malestream nature of sociology and the impact this has on research. - It introduced new topics. - It highlighted the oppression of women and contributed to reducing this oppression. - It has introduced new methods int sociology.
However, feminism hasn't always succeeded in integrating other inequalities into the understanding of gender. As a social movement, it hasn't eradicated all inequality between men and women. In Britain, what has undermined some of the progress made by feminism?	Austerity measures. These have, for example, led to the closure of rape and domestic violence centres and cut welfare support for poor and vulnerable women.

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