socoiology AQA unit 1

Pregunta	Respuesta
sociology	lets get started...
the sociological approach	-sociology explores the social factors that shape human behaviour and the way that society influences our daily lives. sociologists focus on group behaviour.
collecting primary data	carrying out sociological research: -develop research aims & hypotheses -carry out a pilot study -select a sample -collect data -analyse data -evaluate study aims, methods, findings & conclusions
sampling techniques	probability sampling (random sampling)- if the sample is selected randomly, its likely to be representative of the population. simple random sampling- each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
sampling techniques	systematic sampling- researchers take every nth item from the sampling frame e.g every 20th name from a school register. stratified random sampling- researchers divide the population into strata according to characteristics such as age, gender & ethnicity. then they randomly draw a sample from each strata in proportion to the numbers in the population.
sampling techniques	non-probability sampling- this technique is used when a sampling frame is not available. if the sample is not selected randomly, it is not likely to be representative of the population. snowball sampling- through contact with one member of a population, the research is introduced to or identifies others in the same population.
cross sectional & longitudinal studies	cross-sectional- definition- a cross-sectional survey takes a cross section of the population and questions them on relevant issues only once. e.g- a questionnaire asking students about their attitudes towards sex only once.
cross sectional	advantages- not as time consuming as a longitudinal survey. can be a cheap way of gathering a lot of info. disadvantages-this only gives us a snapshot view. it only tells us about people at one particular time.
longitudinal survey	longitudinal- a study of the same group over time. e.g- a questionnaire is given to a group of students concerning their attitudes towards sex. a questionnaire is given to them every year until they finish uni
longitudinal survey	advantages- allows us to examine social change over time. disadvantages- can be time consuming and expensive.
quantitative data	quantitative data- less detail, more proof and more people and more data collected. social surveys is an example of quantitative data. they can be based on questionnaires or structured interviews. the questions are standardised so all respondents answer the same questions. survey questions can be open-ended or closed.
quantitative data	disadvantages of postal questionnaires- -questionnaires cant be explained face to face so some may be misunderstood or skipped -might not be completed -they aren't appropriate for some populations e.g homeless -response rate is usually low, those who respond may not be typical of the population being studies therefore the reasearcher cant generalize from the sample.
social surveys	hand-delivered questionnaires- -researcher hands the self-completion questionnaire to the respondent & returns to collect the completed questionnaire. structured interview- -trained interviewer asks set questions & records respondents answered. conducted face to face or via telephone.
structured interviews	advantages- -trained interviewer can explain questions if respondent requires clarification -questions are standardized so sociologists can compare answers -sociologists can identify connections between diff factors -can be replicated -sociologists can generalize from reliable results
structured interviews	disadvantages- -use of pre-set questions -interviewees have few opportunities to raise new issues -interview effect- a formal interview setting, interviewees may only give answers that are socially acceptable, the results may not be valid -interviewer effect- interviewers social or personal characteristics may influence the answers.
qualitative data	-unstructured reviews and participant observation are examples of primary qualitative data. -unstructured interviews are a guided convo where the interviewer is guided by a short list of prompts.
unstructured interviews	advantages- -trained interviewer can rephrase questions & clear up any misunderstandings -interviewer is not constrained to pre-set questions so can ask follow up questions -interviewees can answer in detail -give an indepth account of the topic being studied -provide a more valid picture of the topic.
unstructured interviews	disadvantages- -more time consuming & expensive -interviewer must have necessary skills to keep convo going -interviewer effect -interview effect -not standardized so difficult to replicate -sample size is smaller so it is difficult to generalize from sample to a wider population.
group interviews	advantages- -the researcher can gather a wide range of views and experiences & build up a wide range of rich info -participants can be recruited to take part in individual interviews at a later point -some interviewees may feel more comfortable when discussing their experiences in a group setting because they are supported by others
group interviews	disadvantages- -require a skilled interviewer who can keep convo going & encourage interviewees to open up -some interviewees may dominate the discussion, others will feel intimidated so not every voice is heard -the researcher cant guarantee confidentiality or anonymity to the interviewees.
non-participant observation	in non P.O the sociologist observes the activities but doesn't take part. advantages- -reduces the risk of the observer effect, however this only happens if the observation is covert -easier to record info & observations, so you can record data easier.
non-participant observation	disadvantages- -if the observation is overt you are at more risk from the observer effect as people know they are being watched. -you don't gain as much info as participant observations as you aren't so submerged in the group you're observing.
participant observation	-in participant observation, the researcher joins a group & takes part in its daily activities. the researcher watches & listens to the group over time & records what is observed. it may be carried out overtly or covertly.
overt participant observation	-in an overt PO study, the groups members are aware that the participant observer is doing research on them. however this may lead to the observer effect, where group members change their behaviour bc they know that they are being studied.
covert participant observations	-in covert PO studies, the researcher doesn't tell the group that they are carrying out research. this avoids the observer effect but means that the researcher may avoid asking too many questions in case they blow their cover.
covert participant observation	-supporters of covert PO may argue that it may be the only way to study illegal activities & that it is acceptable as long as participants aren't harmed as a result of taking part in the research. -others argue that covert PO is justified bc it removes the observer effect.
covert participant observation	-however, critics argue that covert PO is unethical or morally unacceptable. this is bc participants aren't informed that they are being studied so do not get the chance to give, withhold or withdraw their consent. -covert PO also includes contact w a gatekeeper, a member of the group who will introduce the researcher to the group.
covert participant observation	advantages- -removes the observer effect, so findings are more valid -often suitable for 'difficult to reach' groups or those groups or institutions which don't welcome the presence of observers for whatever reason.
covert participant observation	disadvantages- -can be hard to get into a group- takes a lot of time & effort -researcher may have to become involved in criminal or dangerous activities -the researcher has to employ a level of deceit -close friendships are often resulting from connections w members of the group under study. -the problem of 'going native', which refers to the fact that a researcher will cease to be a researcher and will become a full-time group participant -It can be both expensive and time consuming -It would be difficult to repeat a PO study in order to check reliability of the findings
overt participant observation	The researcher is being open about the reason for her presence in the field of study since the researcher is given permission by the group to conduct her research.
Overt participation observation	Advantages- -Removes the observer effect -Often suitable for 'difficult to reach' groups
Overt participation observation	Disadvantages- -There is possibility of the observer effect, where the behaviour of those under study may alter due to the presence of the researcher -It would be difficult to repeat a PO study in order to check reliability of the findings -Researcher is less likely to see the world through the eyes of the group
Secondary sources of data	Secondary data is data that you take from data that has already been gathered Quantitative secondary data-presented as statistical info that counts or measures e.g official statistics such as rates of marriage & divorce
Secondary sources of data	From quantitative secondary data you can work out trends in order to devise questions about social attitudes to these changes so that your question would be informed ones rather than random
Secondary sources of data	Qualitative secondary data- -presented in visual or verbal form, for instance words.. e.g diaries, letters, photographs
Opinion polls.	-opinion polls can be a useful source of secondary data. -they use fixed choice questions to find out ppls voting intentions or their opinions on topical issues. -organisations such as gallop are often told to carry out surveys of voting intentions & political attitudes. -they are regularly published in newspapers
Official statistics.	advantages- -relatively cheap, easy to access & cover many aspects of social life - sometimes they are one of the few sources available on a topic -allows sociologists to examine trends -can be used w primary sources of data to get a fuller pic of a topic
Official statistics.	Disadvantages- -they're put together by officials -can't check the validity of the official statistics -they're socially constructed. They are the outcome of decisions by the ppl involved in their construction
Ethical issues.	-relates to morals & raises questions about how to conduct morally acceptable research which safe guards the participants well being. -one ethical issue is ensuring that the welfare and wellbeing of research participants is taken into account -e.g divorce is a sensitive topic for some ppl, so during research it wud b important to not ask insensitive questions.
Keywords	Sociology- the study if human social life, groups & societies Society- a group of ppl who share a culture Social structures- the groups & institutions that make up society e.g families, social stratification system Social processes- processes such as socialisation, Social control & social change Social issues- issues & problems that affect individuals, groups & communities e.g fear of crime & poverty
Keywords.	Culture- the way of life of a society or group including it's norms, values, beliefs & language Socialization- the process through which we learn the culture & values of the society we are born into Social stratification- the way society is structured/divided into hierarchical strata w the most privileged at the top & the least privileged at the bottom.
Keywords.	Population- the particular group being studied e.g students in higher education Sample- a subgroup of the population that is selected for study Sampling frame- a list of members of the population Representative sample- a sample that has the same characteristics as the population but it's a smaller version of it
Keywords.	Generalizations- general statements & conclusions that apply not only or the sample but the broader population. Peer review- before papers are accepted for presentation at conferences or before articles are published they are assessed & reviewed by experienced sociologists. representative- typical, a representative sample is one that reflects the characteristics if it's population
Keywords	Longitudinal studies- studies of the same group of ppl over a period of time. After the initial survey follow up surveys are carried out at intervals over a num of yrs. Reliability- consistency, research findings are reliable if the same or consistent results are obtained a 2nd time using the same methods. Validity- truth or authenticity, findings are valid if they provide a true pic of what is being studied
Keywords.	Replication- standardised methods such as questionnaires an be replicated by other researchers to check reliability. Interviewer effect- interviewers social or personal characteristics may influence the interviewees responses making the results invalid. Interview effect- on a formal interview setting interviewees might only give answers that are socially acceptable the results may not be valid.
Keywords.	Social construction- often used in relation to age, gender & race & reflects the idea that rather than being rooted in biology or nature, these are created by society or culture. Ethical issues- related to morals, raises questions about how to conduct morally acceptable research which protects the rights of research participants & safeguards their wellbeing.

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	Creado por Bethany Townend hace alrededor de 10 años