History of Psychlology

Pregunta	Respuesta
Ancient Theories of Vision	Extramission (Euclid & Plato) - stream of light from eyes illuminates objects. Lack of understanding of physics. Intromission - Objects cast off a one-atom-thick substance that hits the eye. Not possible due to object constancy.
The Western Dark Ages	After the 5th century the Western Dark Ages occurred. No new discoveries due to religious domination. People in China, India and Muslim countries were having ideas during this period (e.g. Alhazen)
Alhazen (10th/11th Century)	Born in Basra and died under house arrest in Cairo. Father of modern optics. Studied stereopsis, refraction and various illusions (moon illusion and visual angles) which greatly influenced later European work. Understood that light rays originated/reflected from objects and believed that vision occurred in the brain (meaning perception can be mistaken). Did not understand retinal imaging.
The Renaissance and 17th Century Physics Context	15th/16th century Renaissance (thinking anew about science and forming new ideas). Astronomers and physicists considered light in order to make tools to explore the solar system (theories about lenses)
Kepler (16th/17th Century) Isaac Newton (17th/18th Century)	Discovered laws of planetary motion and the retinal image (starting point of vision). Vision was brought by a picture of the object being formed on the concave retina. Kepler did not understand processing of retinal image and assumed activity of the soul/spirits. Passed responsibility onto philosophers. Newton: made many discoveries about light and lenses (e.g. prisms and white light)
18th Century Philosophy	Philosophers Locke and Berkeley (British empiricists) wondered how 2D retinal images made a 3D world. Believed we had to learn about 3D space as we had no innate knowledge. Contrasted with Kant who believed in inborn assumptions or categories regarding 3D perception (nature-nurture).
19th Century Psychophysics - Fechner and Weber	When we began to study psychology of visual perception, though some work was lost/changed during the World Wars. Systematic study of relationship between sensations and physical events, e.g. how brightness is related to luminance of the object. Fechner introduced the term psychophysics in a book (Elements of Psychophysics). Weber proposed Just Noticeable Difference (something not massively obvious e.g. a few extra grams on a small plate). JND constant proportion of 3%. Early psychophysicists introduced many modern methods e.g. constant stimuli and limits (Muller-Lyer).
Helmholtz (19th Century Psychophysics)	1856 - Handbook of Physiological Optics. Had a chair of physiology at Heidelberg then a chair of physics at Berlin (lots of crossover at the time). Invented the opthalmoscope and held an empiricist doctrine of learning about the world using association of visual cues. Theory of depth perception - learned using visual cues and felt position in space. Also developed the trichromatic theory of colour perception. Believed we must learn how to see and perception is indirect and inferential in imagining what must be there using retinal impressions and deduction.
Wundt and the Birth of Experimental Psychology	1879, University of Leipzig recognised his lab as a psychology lab (the first of its kind). First generation of experimental psychologists was influenced by Wundt and many studied with Wundt. Wrote clearly about the difference between experimental psychology (using science and measuring reaction times) and 'folk' psychology (unscientific). Some methods were less scientific due to trying to understand the building blocks of conscious perception, e.g. introspection (trained observers study their own conscious experiences to understand the consisting elements).
Titchener (20th Century Vision)	Lab at Cornell pursuing structuralism (breaking conscious experience into elements), using introspection to identify elements and combinations of conscious experience and understand conscious perception. 4 years later had identified over 30,000 sensations
Introduction of Gestalt Psychology	Developed in the 1910s-30s making many labs in Germany. Challenged the idea that one can gain understanding of something from the individual components. Studied perception and thought processing. Main protagonists were Wertheimer (phi phenomenon that marked the foundation of Gestalt psychology, whole is more than the sum of its parts), Koffka (illusory contours and relative brightness of perceived shapes e.g. the Nessie illusion) and Kohler.
Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organisation	Explain why we group objects together as wholes. - Proximity: things that are close together can be grouped together (rows/columns) - Similarity: similar objects are grouped together - Common fate: group things moving in the same direction (flock of birds) - Good continuation: following paths that continue most sensibly (two lines crossing each other) - Figure: closure, surroundedness, relative size, orientation and symmetry make things part of a figure, not the background Figure-ground ambiguity utilised in optical illusions (e.g. face/vase). We learn to see the sum of parts due to forces in the brain, not by association.
Behaviourism and its Consequences for Vision	Similar time to Gestalt psychology, behaviourism dominated psychology for 50 years. Watson claimed studying consciousness is unscientific and focused on learning (usually animals) and stimulus-response laws. 'Stimulus-response' implies impoverished input to the visual system. Behaviourism minimised cognitive influences between stimulus and response.
Gibson's Ecological Optics	WW2, tasked with training US pilots quickly. Areas of difficulty were take-off and landing (depth perception), training with depth cues ineffective. Conventional approach proposed we used monocular and binocular cues. Gibson believed less in artificial images (no ecological validity) and used textured surfaces/gradients instead. Believed retinal image is not seen, but we see the entire world and eyes sample and structure the optic array using texture gradients and optic flow (centre of focus remains stationary and peripheral movement moves from the centre. Rate of peripheral movement shows speed of motion). Denied representation and cognition and believed we simply see the world with no higher processing.
Gregory's Constructivism	Echoes ideas of Helmholtz (vision is an indirect conclusion mediated by unconscious inference). Used ambiguity of perceptual input and visual illusions such as Muller-Lyer as evidence (misapplied size constancy scaling). Muller-Lyer effect is greater in countries with many angled surfaces and sharp edges; environment influences perception. Famous illusion is the hollow mask, inside of the mask appears to stick out (convex) when it is actually concave. This is because the brain views all faces as convex and it is unlikely to observe a concave face.
Enduring Influences of Gestalt, Gibson and Gregory	Gestalt theories and Gibson point out the importance of considering more than individual elements. Perception must be understood by considering organisation and optic flow. Importance of stimulus knowledge shows the stimulus is more complex than behaviourists suggest. Gregory showed importance of context and expectation. Individual differences in perceptions show environmental influence.
Phrenology	Idea that people with a well-developed faculty of mind had a bigger brain area related to that, leading to a bump on the skull. Main protagonists caught much attention and many phrenology societies developed in early 19th Century. End of the 19th Century, phrenology suggested brain size was linked to intelligence and explained why men were 'more intelligent'. Lee (worked with Pearson) tried to find evidence of this using skull measurements and intelligence/success of men. Results were used to contest phrenology.
Galton (1822-1911)	Founder of psychometrics, obsessed with measuring people and created the normal curve, sampling and correlation coefficients. Believed differences were mostly innate/inherited but also acknowledged environmental influence. Used family trees of successful people to show nature is important, though this could have been due to nurture instead (De Candolle did a similar study on this). Used questionnaires to measure fellows of the Royal Society to determine environmental and heritable influences: one cannot attribute all behaviour to either nature or nurture. Incredibly sexist and racist - founder of eugenics (not allowing the unintelligent to breed). Laboratory in 1884 where participants paid to be measured using physical traits, reaction times and sensory discrimination. No useful findings as he measured the wrong factors.
Spearman (1863-1945)	Came up with the idea of a general factor of intelligence in 1904 (before intelligence tests invented). Paper used tests on school children to see if abilities on tests were correlated. Poor quality paper with Spearman making many excuses for poor performance in privileged children but not poor children. Considered the presence of specific factors in intelligence but is most known for the general factor. Precursor for many two-factor theories of intelligence.
Binet (1857-1911) and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test	Aimed to measure intelligence so he could identify which children needed special schooling. Binet-Simon Intelligence Test invented in 1905 to identify special needs. Later translated and published by Goddard in 1908 as a test for intelligence. Adapted by Terman to create the SBIT, used by Stanford Uni to screen people for intelligence. SBIT gave a mental age depending on ability to solve certain tasks. Relied on cultural understanding and knowledge of the English language.
Intelligence Quotient	IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100. SBIT commonly to measure intelligence in children and adolescents but not useful for adults as IQ declines with chronological age for no good reason. Use Wechsler scales for adult IQ, measuring deviation of IQ from a mean of 100 with an SD of 15.
Abuse of Intelligence Tests - Immigration, Racism and Eugenics	Early adopters of intelligence tests in USA assumed that the SBIT measured innate intelligence (Binet never claimed this). In WW1, APA led by Yerkes developed the alpha (written) and beta (for illiterate people) intelligence tests for job allocation to draftees. People from foreign countries graded A-E, highest grades coming from English-speaking/European countries and lowest from Russia/Italy/Poland. Results later influenced immigration policy, intelligence tests used to test prospective immigrants and see if they were intelligent enough. Terman and eugenics - preventing the 'feeble-minded' from breeding would reduce poverty, crime and stupidity.
Cryil Burt's 11-Plus	11-plus created by Burt to sort children into grammar schools or vocational schools. Test was a single exam on one single occasion to assess children. No chance to improve poor scores as test was built on idea of heritable intelligence. Burt used twin studies of MZ and DZ twins reared apart and together but later was found to be fraudulent in his results.
Issues in Intelligence Testing	Many issues of cultural bias in tests throughout history. Bell Curve Controversy caused by Herrnstein and Murray who claimed that different races had different average IQ and suggested racist ideas like African Americans having a lower IQ. The Flynn Effect - IQ is gradually increasing over time.
Multiple Intelligences	Thurlstone: Factor analysis described Primary Mental Abilities (verbal comprehension; numerical ability; memory; reasoning; perceptual speed; verbal fluency; spatial relations). Gardner discussed multiple intelligences (linguistic; logical-mathematical; musical; spatial; bodily; inter-personal; intro-personal; natural). Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of intelligence: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence.
Pythagoras	Mathematician and philosopher interested in balance and harmony. Believed in educating women and many of his students were women. Aesara argued that physical and mental health resulted from harmony. Also proposed the tri-part soul consisting of mind, spirit and desire.
Hippocrates	Known for the Hippocratic oath in medicine. Believed illness was caused by an imbalance of the four elements, represented by the four humours, blood (air), phlegm (water), black bile (earth) and yellow bile (fire). Balance of humours was thought to influence personality.
Galen	Developed humourism. Four temperaments that were precursors to main personality types - sanguine (optimistic), phlegmatic (peaceful, apathetic), melancholic (pensive, depressed) and choleric (aggressive). Excess of humour should be treated by restoring balance.
Middle Ages and Personality	Thoughts were theologically dominated with ideas of avoiding Hell. As opposed to individual differences, ideas like sin were studied. Beliefs in an immortal soul and original sin (inherently flawed), rejected thoughts on the world and focused on Heaven.
Behaviourism and Personality	Rejected introspection as a valid method of study. Individual differences were a result of conditioning processes. Pavlov - nervous activity consists of excitation and inhibition, thought to correspond to Galen's temperaments. Later found that animals can only be conditioned to produce natural behaviours.
Freud's Theory of Personality	Detailed the structure of the mind. Psychosexual development proposed that one's personality is developed through experiences during different life stages.
Carl Jung	Analytic psychology, considered the unconscious and the collective unconscious containing archetypes of the shared world and human nature. Discussed differing attitudes (extraversion and introversion) and function (thinking/feeling and sensing/intuition), building blocks for the MBTI.
Allport	The original trait theorist. Believed traits were neuropsychological structures expressed in behaviour or habitual patterns. Allport and Odbert - found 18,000 words describing personality, reduced to 4,500 observable traits. Split into cardinal traits (dominant), central trait (stable) and secondary traits (preferences).
Cattell	Searched for source traits using factor analysis, looking at relationships between traits. Described 16 dimensions of personality he believed accurately described people. 16PF published in 1946, used widely to map personality types.
Eysenck	Took a nativist approach, personality arises from one's neurophysiology. Believed in a genetic basis for personality. Original Eysenck Personality Inventory plotted people on extraversion and neuroticism (linked to 4 temperaments). Later added psychoticism (PEN model).
Big Five Traits	Originally identified by Tupes, Christal and Norman, then later redeveloped Goldberg & Digman and then Costa & McCrae. Proposed five summative traits (OCEAN), strongly contested by Eysenck and Cattell.
Definitions: Multifinality and Equifinality	Multifinality - an early experience can lead to many possible outcomes. Equifinality - multiple factors/experiences can cause the same outcome.
Behaviourism - Locke's Blank Slate Theory	Individuals are completely shaped by experience through learning and reinforcement. Operant conditioning is used to modify behaviour.
History of Evolutionary Psychology	Uses natural selection to explain behaviour, believing that we are genetically programmed to repeat successful ancestral behaviours so we can achieve evolutionary success by having children. Universal behaviours (language acquisition, babies attract attention, toddlers explore) suggest innate abilities in humans.
Evolutionary Psychology - Galton's Twin Studies	Galton was a determinist, nativist and elitist. Undertook twin studies (MZ and DZ reared together and apart) and suggested no child from a poor background could succeed. If both twins carry a trait then it is concordant.
Bouchard's Minnesota Twin Family Study	Experimental question of which characteristics were inherited or acquired. Investigating MZ twins reared apart. Jim Twins - adopted at 4 weeks, shared many similarities against the odds: - Both married Linda, then Betty - Both had sons named James Allan/Alan and adopted brother Larry - Similar IQs and personalities, both did woodwork and were deputy sheriffs, good at maths. Some twins were quite dissimilar, though many psychological factors (even religion) found some genetic influence, no matter whether they were reared apart or together.
Nature and Nurture in Male Aggression and Klinefelter Syndrome	Some men have an extra Y chromosome (XYY) or extra X (XXY, Klinefelter Syndrome). Theory they are more aggressive. Men with extra chromosomes found to be overrepresented in psychiatric hospitals and prisons. Study found increased criminality and men with XYY found to be more violent than controls, becoming more pronounced with age. Similar but less dramatic result found with Klinefelter. After controlling for SES, results between genes and convictions no longer significant. Only significant in sexual abuse, arson and burglary (violent crimes).
Epigenetics	Brings together factors of nature and nurture. Considers environmental exposures during development (e.g. foetal development of mice and exposure of mother to toxins, impacts foetus through placenta). Environmental and genetic impacts can be observed by looking at development of siblings in different environments.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)	Travelled to Galapagos Islands where he saw the importance of environment in shaping adaptive response. Posed the theory of natural selection - survival or extinction. Changes happen by chance alone and so slowly they cannot be perceived. Environment determined if they are advantageous or not. Compared human and animal emotions as universally innate and adaptive. Mendel provided the backbone of Darwin's theory.
Evolution Before Darwin: Leclerc (1707-1788)	Recognised that Earth had gone through stages of transformation over a long term. Conducted experiments by heating spheres and seeing how long it took to cool to estimate age of the earth. Refuted claims of biblical scholars with his evidence and was accused of heresy when he proposed a common ancestry between humans and animals (due to similarities of skeletons) and that earth had gone through many stages.
Evolution Before Darwin: Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)	Grandfather of Darwin and Galton. Wrote that plant life likely preceded animal life and all animals came from a common organic material. Proposed that humans were not far removed from quadrupeds and proposed a mechanism for evolution through inheritance of acquired characteristics. Did not mention these ideas due to persecution of other similar minds.
Evolution Before Darwin: Lamarck	Theory of inheriting acquired traits (phenotypes). Believed the current environment could impact heritability snd that gained traits such as muscle mass could be passed onto offspring (not true and theory did not stand up against Darwin's). Some disturbing applications such as aiming to build super races.
Pavlov (1849-1936)	Believed that behaviour was reflexive and studied salivation and digestion (internal reflexes). Believed a stimulus acts as a signal that announces the occurrence of an event (associative learning). Presence or absence of response allowed for quantifications and explanations of behaviours important for psychology as a science.
Bechterev (1957-1927)	Believed that consciousness would manifest in overt behaviour. Issues of the mind and spirit could be examined by studying behaviour. Studied the impact of environmental stimulation on behaviour, exploring behavioural responses as a result of conditions, being more interested in resultant responses rather than the mechanism pairing stimuli together. Criticised Pavlov as research was 'not natural' as it required surgery and could not be used on humans (though he did do this). Also criticised American researchers for saying their studies copied his.
Watson (1878-1958)	Explored radical behaviourism, believed that consciousness had no impact on behaviour and was merely a by-product of stimulus presentation. 4 types of behaviour: Explicit learned behaviour (talking) Implicit learned behaviour (heart rate adjusting in response to phobic stimulus) Explicit unlearned behaviour (reflexes) Implicit unlearned behaviour (circulation) Watson & Rayner believed that most emotions were rooted in radical environmentalism, learned by S-R presentations. Feelings did not matter, the evoking stimulus did.
Skinner (1904-1990)	Proposed the theory of operant conditioning and believed conditioning could be used behaviour modification.
William James (1842-1910)	Published two volumes called The Principles of Psychology in 1890. Insightful about the structure and function of attention and memory and distinguished primary (working) memory from secondary/proper (long-term) memory. Defined memory as knowledge of a fact or event with consciousness of previous experience or thought. Researched psychology by looking at the findings of others as opposed to conducting his own research.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)	Tried to study memory empirically using nonsense syllables (devoid of meaning). Tested himself and timed how long it took to learn a list of syllables, then how long it took to relearn the list (LTM) and working memory span after one presentation. Could only memorise 7 syllables at once. Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve showed that learned knowledge declines rapidly over the first few hours of learning then levels off.
Cognition During Behaviourism - Bartlett	Behaviourist era from 1910s-60s. General consensus that actions should be explained using observable phenomena. Bartlett's 'Remembering' (1932) discussed cognition. Criticised Ebbinghaus as nonsense syllables were not devoid of meaning. Learners were trained to have an automatic attitude to learning but this didn't reflect cognition. Used real passages and pictures and serial reproduction (recounting contents over and over) - issue in knowing which instance of presentation memories come from. Recall of events is affected by expectations of what should happen.
The Cognitive Revolution	Rise of computers meant that processing speed and memory were concrete, scientific ideas. Flow charts (used in computer programming) could be used to discuss cognitive processes, leading to observations in language, memory and attention.
Language in the Cognitive Revolution	Skinner's verbal behaviour explained language using reinforcement history and word associations. Criticised by Chomsky and psycholinguistics - one cannot explain knowledge and understanding of language using reinforcement. Must be some innate rules of syntax, semantics and structure.
Information Processing and Short-Term Memory	Miller's magic number of 7±2 chunked items. Central feature of Broadbent's filter model (1958) and Atkinson & Shiffrin's MSM (1968). Neisser charted the refinement of the cognitive approach in his book and questioned implications of lab experiments in cognitive psychology.
Historical Cases of Brain Injuries and the Use of Single Case Study Methods	Broca (1824-1880): case study of Tan. Lesions in the left hemisphere left him unable to speak. Wernicke's area later discovered in speech comprehension. Phineas Gage developed a frontal lobe injury, lost all conversational filters, was impulsive and unable to plan. Single case methods in the 70s and 80s, strong in Italy and UK. Helped to understand roles of different brain areas.
Dissociations and Double Dissociations	Dissociations - where a patient can do A but not B (not always useful in separating functions due to differing task difficulty). Double dissociations - Where one patient can do A but not B, and a different patient can do B but not A.
Double Dissociation of Short- and Long-Term Memory - H.M. and K.F.	H.M. treated for epilepsy by removing hippocampus, causing anterograde amnesia. Had good STM and some procedural/implicit memory, though similar symptoms can be produced by Korsakoff syndrome or disease. K.F. studied by Shallice & Warrington with left parieto-occipital damage. Digit span of 2 but a normal LTM (cannot form without STM). Inspired Baddeley & Hitch to give participants STM task and long-term word memory task at once. STM did not affect LTM unless STM load was large. Led to development of WMM showing STM can be engaged in different tasks without affecting LTM (slave systems).
Double Dissociation of Central and Peripheral Visual Agnosia - HJA and Dennis	HJA - suffered a stroke in occipital lobes. Could describe a seen object but could not identify/recognise objects despite knowledge of the object when asked to describe it. Could draw objects from memory but could not copy line drawings or group features (shown in the visual search paradigm, no benefit in the homogenous condition and checked every individual item). Deficits in early bottom-up perception: visual processing. Dennis had damaged occipital and right frontal lobes. Unable to recognise, define or describe objects (e.g. specific animals) but could copy line drawings effectively. Also unable to draw from memory. Deficits in higher levels of perception involving object appearances and knowledge.
Double Dissociation in Face Perception (Bruce & Young)	Independent routes for different aspects of facial processing (e.g. expression analysis and person identification) and a double dissociation between expression analysis and lip reading/facial speech analysis (using movement of the lips to determine what someone is saying). Campbell, Landis & Regard found someone with a left hemisphere injury could read expressions and identify people but not lipread. Right hemisphere injuries led to inability to identify expressions or people, but lipreading was not impaired.
History of Brain Mapping	Late 1800s, experiments done by the likes of Helmholtz (e.g. reaction times) gave idea that blood flow is associate with brain function (i.e. more blood in active regions due to demand). Idea progressed slowly until 1972 when CT was invented and we could map brains. Developments kept building until modern day with renewed interest in intrinsic activity (consciousness e.g. Wundt) with brain mapping accompanying.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation	Electrical pulse in a coil induces a sudden change in the magnetic field in the brain area beneath the coil. Temporarily interferes with brain activity for 1/100th of a second to assess which areas are associated with different functions. Method has good temporal resolution, but training is required for good spatial resolution in pinpointing specific areas. No known side effects in typical humans.
Computerised Tomography Scanning	Early post-mortems the only way of understanding the brain. No way to examine the living brain due to skull density and heavy bleeding. First CT scanner invented in 1972 by Hounsfield and Cormack. X-ray tube rotates around the brain and takes many x-rays at different angles. Differences in x-ray absorption by the brain at different angles allows an image to be created by computer calculations of shape and density. Invention required 3 developments: rotating x-ray tube, maths to analyse data on density, computers to calculate and create images. CT scans made it possible for the first time to view a living brain though other big companies later took over processing.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging: How it Works	Developed in 1977. Manipulates protons to yield a radio signal in a magnetic field. Protons (normally scattered) line up in a magnetic field. When radio wave is applied they return to normal state. Many factors (blood flow and tissue density) mean protons move back to the original state at different rates. Those contrasts are used to produce a structural MRI image. Used to show, tumours, lesions, changes over time. Spatial resolution is very good, but temporal resolution is not as it is like a picture.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging	Differing radio frequencies in an MRI scanner can detect blood oxygen levels. Changes in signal indicate metabolic brain activity. fMRIs present participants with activities in the scanner to monitor responses to stimuli and can even visualise specific brain columns. Quality will increase with strength of magnetic fields developed. Limitations: - Enormous magnetic field and scanner makes testing difficult. Claustrophobic participants may struggle to take part. - No electrical equipment e.g. computers, keyboards, speakers, allowed in the room.
Subtraction Logic (Donders, 1800s)	Used reaction times to infer cognitive processes. Aimed to build on Helmholtz's work, wanting to measure time taken to recognise and react to stimuli. Studied both simple and complex tasks and the differences in time taken to respond to tasks of differing difficulty (mental action time). Subtracted the reaction times for simple tasks (e.g. reacting to a stimulus) from RTs for complex tasks (e.g. discriminating and then reacting to a stimulus) to find the RT for the more complex activity (discriminating the stimulus without reacting to it). Subtraction logic eliminates individual differences in participant RTs, but is limited due to assumption that inserting a new task will not disrupt the others.
Subtraction Logic in fMRI: Object Recognition	1990s, hypothesis that certain brain areas are specialised in object perception. Malach et al. compared brain activation when participants see objects to when they see control images. Subtraction logic applied to identify which areas are active ONLY when viewing the object. Object recognition found to be dissociated from texture recognition and located in the lateral occipital complex.
Electroencephalogram	First recording done by Hans Berger in 1924, looking at differences in activity when eyes are open and closed. Electrodes placed on the scalp. Measures voltage fluctuations from neuronal activity. Activity is the result of electric fields generated by summation of IPSPs and EPSPs in more than thousands of cells. Multi-electrode EEG makes spatial localisation possible and is easier to use on participants like children than an MRI as they can move about. Process is also non-invasive. Very good temporal but poor spatial resolution as not all neurons contribute to the EEG signal. Signals tend to be weak and so you need to take averages over many trials to cancel out white noise.
Single Cell Electrophysiology	Cognitive map experiment (Tolman, 1940s) led O’Keefe & Nadel to believe cells in the hippocampus responsible for the cognitive map that code for location (place cells). Work by placing tetrodes (sets of electrodes) into the brain (e.g. the hippocampus) of a rat. Rat walks around its environment and tetrodes record hippocampal activity alongside the rat’s movement (i.e. one can track where in the room the hippocampus is most activated). Further research - place cells cannot distinguish between different locations with the same context/surroundings.

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