Linguistic and literary terminology

Pregunta	Respuesta
Referential (Purpose)	Informs
Rhetorical (Purpose)	Persuades
Transactional (Purpose)	To purchase/buy/get something to happen
Expressive (Purpose)	Conveys feelings/opinion/attitude
Narrative (Purpose)	Tells a story
Initiators	Words used to start a verbal exchange "Hello/I would like to start by..."
Monitoring features	Language that checks audience understanding "Know what I mean, don't you?"
Turn taking	The organisation of a verbal exchange. Reveals levels of cooperation. A: Speak B: Answer A: Respond
Topic management	The way participants organise/negotiate a conversation. Can reveal who is more dominant in a conversation and whether it is cooperative. A: So did you enjoy- B: My holiday in the Seychelles? Yes of course! It was so wonderful blah blah...
Topic shifts	Moving from one topic to another. Can be signalled in written language by "alternatively", "meanwhile", "however" etc...
Tag questions	Questions added at the end of declarative sentences to change them to interrogatives "A typical British summer, isn't it?"
Repair	Where the speaker repeats a term, elaborating or correcting their previous utterance. "This isn't what... we did nothing, ok?"
Adjacency pairs	Common sequences of utterances used in conversation. A: How are you good? B: Good, thanks. You? A: Terrible. (#breakingthepattern)
Three-part exchanges	Verbal feedback exchanges, in the structure Question-Answer-Comment. A: What is the capital of Timbuktu? B: Uh, Rome A: Trick question, it is a capital! evil laugh
Anaphoric reference	Pronouns that refer back to subject matter for cohesion. "Neil Patrick Harris is amazing. He's even hosting the Oscars this year!"
Back channelling	Words or sounds from the listener indicating to the speaker that they are listening. "Yeh... Mmm... uhuh... sure baby, I haven't eaten all the chocolates."
Topic loops	Returning to an earlier topic. "Sure, bands are cool, but let's think back to the possibility of getting a DJ."
Side sequences	New topic that diverges shortly from the main conversation. "Oh, by the way Sarah, we need some more milk. Can you write that on the shopping list?"
Non-sequiturs	Going off at a tangent, often rambling. "But why do you not like beef? It's so succulent and juicy. Can we get some apple juice?" continues for 94 minutes
Grammatical blends	Starts as one form of sentences and ends up as another. "Go and do your homework, or must I take away your phone?"
Discourse markers	Structural device words that mark boundaries or turning points in conversation. "Right, let's bury this body before the cops arrive..."
Interruptions	An interjection, signalling a desire to dominate or intervene in a conversation, or a sign of enthusia- "Hey! Stop giving us a boring lecture!"
Overlapping/Simulataneous speech	Speaking at the same time as each other, less forceful than interruptions. Can be cooperative. "Cooperative, I agree with that..."
Ellipsis	Shortening/restricting clauses by omitting expected words. "Get in (the car)!"
Deictics	Words pointing to things in the immediate context. "Having a look through those, are you?"
Hedges/mitigators	Words that make speech/text sound less assertive. "Maybe these might help..."
Implicature	Suggested or implied meaning behind language. "I have been awfully good at school today! (Can I have a lollipop?)"
Grice's Maxim of Relevance	Be relevant to subject topic. Subject: Ice Cream Comment: I love Kangaroos (X)
Grice's Maxim of Quality	Be truthful. "Yep. That's all there is to know." 16 years later
Grice's Maxim of Quantity	Speak the appropriate amount for the conversation. A: What do you think of Dolphins? B: They're cool. (X) C: I love dolphins. I love the way they glide through the open water, like streams down a gorge... continues for 94 minutes (X)
Grice's Maxim of Manner	Speak clearly & coherently, and be concise. A: Have you seen the new Spiderman movie? B: Bleurgh. Hubblah libbaleur bleu. (X) C: Well, on the one hand, I do remember going to a cinema. Or was it on the television? continues for 94 minutes (X)
Relative status	The education/age/class level of participants.
Phatic communion	Social language. A: See you later, alligator. B: In a while, crocodile.
Declarative sentence	Statement "I'm a burrito"
Interrogative sentence	Question "Do you like marmalade?"
Exclamatory sentence	Exclamation "Samson!"
Imperative	Command "Start revising these cards."
Elision	The omission of syllables "He is/He's not here."
Sympathetic circularity	Utterance implying that the topic outcomes can be inferred without further explanation "We first saw each other across the train station, and the rest's all history."
Key comments for register	Formality and the level of sophistication "Pardon me, I'm looking for Lady Jane."
Colloquial language	Conversational exchanges A: So, you saw the footy game last night? B: Yeah, Cambridge United were well good.
Mono/disyllabic language	Simple lexis (of Anglo Saxon/Germanic origin) "Hey! Stella! Meat!"
Polysyllabic language	Complex lexis (of Latinate origin) "I offer the doctor my most enthusiastic contrafibularities."
Elaborate code	Wide-ranging lexis "I terminated my uninterrupted categorisation of the vocabulary of our post-Norman Time."
Restricted code	Narrow-ranging lexis "That's a big ball!"
Key comment if there is a lot of detail	Level of clarification
Slang/peer/taboo language	Very informal language "What you chatting at, blud?" THUG LIFE
Assimilation	Words running into each other "Lyrics coming at you at supersonic speed, Uh, summalummadommalummayouassumingi'mahumanwhatIgottadotogetitthroughtoyouI'masuperhuman..." continues for 94 beats
Abbreviations	Shortened words "Crimethink."
Semantic field	Words falling into the same topic group "I have many acres of sheep eating grass in my field lined with bushes."
Specialisms	Useful technical words (e.g. used in medicine or law) "Frontal lobotomy"
Jargon	Negative term for sometime unnecessary lexis (e.g. in business or computing) "Profit learner targets."
Conventions (Linguistic)	Common expectations in certain language exchanges A: Will you take Janet to be your lawfully wedded wife? B: Maybe... #fail
Comment clause	Conveys tentative feeling "I think I'll do well in this exam."
Disjuncts	Comments on the truth or value of what's being said "Frankly, that was terrible singing." boo hiss
Contractions	Utterances with syllables left out and/or words shortened "I'll know when my love comes along..."
Fillers	Words without meaning that allow time to think "Um, what I mean, er... by this is... well... everybody makes mistakes."
Coordinating conjunctions	Words linking phrases and/or clauses together "I really like you, but this relationship is going too fast."
Hedges	Words that soften the emphasis behind what's being said "So, I may have crashed the car..."
Redundancies	Unnecessary language that repeats what has just been said "It wasn't me, I am not the one responsible here."
False starts	Beginning then changing an opening "I had- I mean, we had a great time!"
High frequency conversational phrases	Words used repeatedly in language "It was a great game, you know, and the noise of the crowd was like, you know, amazing, and I felt amazing, you know..." continues for 94 minutes
End clipping	Leaving out the last consonant from a verb ending in "-ing" "They see me rollin'."
Cliché	Overused clauses "It was a tough match, but at the end of the day, your another day older..."
Paralinguistic features	Elements other than language that helps convey meaning to others (e.g. gestures and facial expressions) :D
Intonation	Tone of voice "I'm very disappointed in you" speaks in chipmunk voice
Pace (Linguistic)	The speed/momentum indicated in the speech "Redlorryyellowlorryredlorryyellowlorry..."
Regional Identity (Linguistic)	Language according to geographical location Irish: It's aall wrungh!
Dialect	The lexis and grammar used by people of a particular regional or social background "We was in the skatepark, geddit?"
Accent	A distinctive manner of pronouncing words in different regions and social backgrounds "You say 'tomayto', I say 'tomato'."
Received pronouciation	Clear sophisticated accent (typically British) with connotations of social status "This is the BBC Home Service."
Non Standard English	Language diverging from standard rules of language "I is waiting here for them."
Idioms	An expression established in a local language "You can find your room up the apples-and-pears."
Low frequency words	Lexis used rarely "Oliver Warbucks is such a philanthropist"
Semantics	Word meanings "Ross derives from the Gaelic word for 'headland'."
Denotation	The literal meaning of a word "A dictionary is a book or electronic resource that lists the words of language (usually alphabetically) and gives them meaning."
Connatation	Associations a word has "Indie music is often associated with hipsters and people who don't follow the mainstream."
Euphemism	Word which replaces others deemed socially unpleasant or unacceptable "We made love that night..."
Dysphemism	Words with offensive connotations
Rhetoric	Linguistic persuasion
Anaphora	Repetition at the beginning of successive sentences or repetition at the beginning of successive clauses for effect
Ephiphora	Repeating the end of a clause for effect, or the end of sentence for effect
Tricolon	Three part structures or lists "Wholegrain is delicious, nutritious and more satisfying."
Collocation	Words which habitually go together "Song and dance."
Chiasmus	A reflection effect in successive clauses (using a ABBA structure) "It was them versus us, us versus them."
Antithesis	Contrasting pairs in language emphasising comparison and/or juxtaposition "She loved me. I did not love her."
Hyperbole	Exaggeration to emphasise feeling and intensity "My body was frozen in place."
Litotes	Deliberate understatements "The boxer didn't feel too well after the match."
Laudatory language	Praises someone or something
Irony	The discrepancy between appearance and reality, which can be humorous depending on intent and audience understanding "She arrived five minutes late to the talk on time management."
Refutation	Discrediting arguments put against the orator's viewpoint "He argues that all Capitalists are pigs: we would expect this viewpoint from a left wing politician." #burn
Diminutio	Putting yourself down to win sympathy "I was utterly helpless against the power of the corrupt justice system."
Us and them technique	Juxtaposing your group against opposition/enemies "They want to privatise our national institutions. We say no!"
Exemplum	Giving an example/reference/anecdote to illustrate a point "We can see gravity at work all around us, such as in the falling autumn leaves."
Rhetorical question	A question expressing a truth that cannot be denied "Somewhere beyond the barricade, is there a world we long to see?"
Percantio	Enquiry addressed to another person in a tone of bewilderment or amazement "Is it true?"
Ratiocinatio	Elaborate way of structuring speech by posing questions and answering them "Can we change the NHS for the better? It will be hard, but we will succeed."
Amplificatio	Elaborating an idea by saying it in different ways "Lucy is the apple of my eye, the light of my life."
Occupatio	Refusal to go into details (often used by politicians) A: Did you have any idea of the consequences of your actions? B: We shouldn't put the blame on one side.
Transitio	Recapping on what's been said and outlining what will be said next "Now I explained to you how to cook the cake, I will demonstrate the technique for making the icing."
Constructed language	A text or speech planned and crafted with consideration. "In this speech, I will try to argue why Britain needs urgent reform."
Simile	A comparison of one thing with another (usually using "like" or "and") "Like a comet pulled from orbit as it passes the sun, like a stream that meets a boulder halfway through the wood..."
Metaphor	Non-literal language describing one thing as another "The beast stalked into the house, nearing my bedroom."
Personification	Giving human characteristics to non-human things "The burrito gazed pleadingly at me."
Imagery	Descriptive language "The moon's sharp beams painted white onto the dark blue around it."
Dynamic verbs	Action verbs "run", "walk" "sleep", "hear", "think", "step"
Stative verbs	Verbs describing feelings and states of mind "like", "hate", "love", "want", "believe", "wish", "seem", "appear, "know"
Syntax	How words are assembled into sentences, clauses and phrases "Ooh, message from the dark side there is." (X)
Narrative	How a story is told "Once upon a time, in a far off kingdom..."
Free indirect style	When the Narrator shifts into the character's perspective (usually without speech marks) "Papa wouldn't want me to look, because it is a sin to look upon another person's nakedness."
Direct Speech	Quotation of somebody (usually found in speech marks) "Clare pointed at the bull. "Watch out!" she cried."
Indirect speech	Narrator tells of what someone has said "George says that he didn't eat the pudding."
Abstract noun	Describes ideals or values that exist only in the mind and/or heart "love", "justice", "freedom", "peace"
Concrete noun	Objects that have a tangible reality "bicycle", "paper", "map", "road"
Pronouns	Takes the pace of the subject in a sentence to avoid repetition. "I", "You", "He", "She", "We", "They"
Adjective	A word used to describe a noun (usually placed before or after it) "The party was colourful" "The beautiful butterfly"
Adverb	A word used to describe a verb or adjective (usually describing how/when/where/why things happened) "The boy ran quickly." "The dress was completely immaculate."
Preposition	Words indicating where things are in relation to something "Your glasses are beside the vase." "The café is right next to the florists."
Syndetic list	List of words connected with conjunctions "There this dress and this hat and this shirt and these lovely shoes."
Asyndetic list	List of words not connected with conjunctions "Butter; milk; eggs; cheese."
Phonology	The sounds words create
Alliteration	Repetition of the same sound in succession "Bobby's Bloody Brilliant Baths"
Assonance	Repetition of the same vowel sounds in succession "Apes ask for afternoon ambles."
Consonance	Repetition of similar consonant sounds in succession "Tow truck tows tractor."
Homophone	Word with multiple meanings Bank - a place to store money; the side of a river.
Sibilance	Repetition of "S" sound in succession "The salmon slip slowly up stream."
Plosive sounds	Words starting with consonants that escape in sharp bursts from the mouth "Plumber", "Banker", "Duck"
Fricatives	Consonant sounds made by narrowing the mouth and constricting it "Factory", "Thieves", "Shame"
Onomatopoeia	Where words imitate sounds "Bang", "Crunch", "Ting"

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