Organizational Theory and Behaviour

Pregunta	Respuesta
Organization	Organizations are groups of more than two individuals that coordinate their behavior in the pursuit of shared goals
Prof. Etzioni (1964) on Organizations	“We are born in organizations, educated by organizations, and most of us spend much of our lives working for organizations”
Organizational Behaviour	Commonly referrred to as OB, an interdisciplinary field to better understanding and managing people at work.
History of Organizational Behaviour (4)	1. The Human Relations Movement (1930s) 2. The Quality movement (1980s) 3. The Internet & Social Media Revolution (1990s) 4. The age of Human and Social Capital
Human Relations Movement	- Inspired by legalization of union-management collective bargaining in the US (1935) + more attention to the human factor. - Hawthorne Studies: Supportive management - Pioneers Mayo and Follett : Motivate job performance by “Pulling” not “Pushing”
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y	Drawing on his experience as a management consultant, McGregor formulated two sharply contrasting sets of assumtions about human nature.
Theory X (3)	Negative and Pessimistic, typical of how managers traditionally perceived empolyees: 1. Most people dislike work; they avoid it when they can 2. Most people must be coerced and threatened with punishment before they will work. They will require close direction. 3. Most people actually prefer to be directed and avoid responsibility.
Theory Y (5)	A modern and positive set of assumptions: 1. Work is a natural activity, like play or rest 2. People are capable of self-direction and self-control if they are committed to objectives. 3. People generally become committed to organizational objectives if they are rewarded for doing so. 4. The typical employee can learn to accept and seek responsibility 5. The typical member of the general population has imagination, ingenuity, and creativity.
The Quality Movement & Total Quality Managment (TQM)	TQM is an organizational culture dedicated to training, continuous improvement and customer satisfaction. It is employee-driven and customer-focussed. Principles: do it right the first time, learn from and listen to customers and employees, make continuous improvements, build teamwork, trust and mutual respect.
The Internet and Social Media Revolution Implications for OB and leaders? (4)	1. More and faster communication with others 2.Customers demand: here, me, now 3. More potential for damage by unethical leaders 4. Enables the existence of networks that go across traditional organizational boundaries
E-business	Running the entire business via the Internet and managing virtual teams.
Human and Social Capital	Human Capital: the productive potential of an individual’s knowledge and actions. Social Capital: productive potential resulting from strong relationships, goodwill, trust, and cooperative effort.
Management	Process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives, efficiently and ethically, amid constant change
Contingency approach	Using management tools and techniques in a situationally appropriate manner; avoiding the one-best-way mentality
The Ethics Challenge	Scandals can trigger a greater call for ethical (moral) conduct within organizations and corporate social responsibility
Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid	Corporations are expected to go above and beyond following the law and making a profit. (economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibility)
How to improve the Organization's ethical climate? (6)	1. Behave ethically yourself 2. Screen Potential employees 3. Develop a meaningful code of ethics 4. Provide ethics training 5. Reinforce ethical behaviour 6. Create positions, units, and other structural mechanisms to deal with ethics
Three approaches to learn about OB	Theory – ideas about what happens and why Research – testing theoretical ideas Practice – learning from what has (not) worked
Diversity	The host of individual differences that make people different from and similar to each other.
Affirmative Action (3)	1. Focusses on achieving equality of opportunity in an organization. 2. Artificial intervention aimed at giving management a chance to correct a mistake that occurred in the past. 3. Does not require hiring unqualified people.
Managing Diversity	Creating organizational changes that enable all people to perform up to their maximum potential.
Workforce Demographics	Statistical profiles of adult workers, which enable managers to anticipate and adjust for surpluses or shortages of appropriately skilled individuals.
Glass ceiling	Invisible barrier blocking women and minorities from top management positions
Social Categorization Theory	Similarity leads to liking and attraction. People tend to like and trust in-group members more than out-group members and generally favor in-groups over out-groups.
Information/Decision-making theory	Diversity leads to better task-relevant processes and decision making
Demographic Fault Line	A hypothetical dividing line that splits groups into demographically based subgroups.
Barriers and Challenges to Managing Diversity (11)	1. Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice. 2. Ethnocentrism. 3. Poor career planning. 4. A negative diversity climate. 5. An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees. 6. Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees. 7. Difficulty in balancing career and family issues 8. Fears of reverse discrimination. 9. Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority. 10. The need to revamp an organization's performance appraisal and rewards. 11. Resistance to change.
R Roosevelt Thomas Jr. Generic Action Options (8)	1. Include/Exclude 2. Deny 3. Assimilate 4. Suppress 5. Isolate 6. Tolerate 7. Build Relationships 8. Foster Mutual Adaptation.
Organizational Culture	Shared values and beliefs that underlie a company's identity. A set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about and reacts to its various environments
Values	Enduring belief in a mode of conduct or end-state.
Observable Artifacts	Constitute the physical manifestations of an organization’s culture
Espoused Values	Constitute explicitly stated values and norms that are preferred by an organization
Basic Assumptions	Constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior
Enacted Values	The values and norms that are exhibited by employees.
PE fit	Extent to which personal characteristics match those from a work environment.
Competing Values Framework	A framework for categorizing organizational culture. (for example: clan culture, market culture, hierarchy culture or adhocracy culture)
Organizational Socialization	Process by which employees learn an organization's values, norms, and required behaviours
Three phases of the Organizatioanl Socialization	1. Anticipatory Socialization phase: learning that occurs prior to joining the organization. 2. Encounter phase: Values, skills and attitudes start to shift as new recruit discovers what the organization is truly like. 3. Change and acquisition: Recruit masters skills and roles and ajusts to work group's values and nroms.
Embedding Organizational Culture through Mentoring	Mentoring = process of forming and maintaining developmental relationships between a mentor and a junior person.
Four Common Denominators which enable organizations to come to life and to function.	1. Coordination of effort 2. Common goal 3. Division of labor 4. Hierarchy of authority Or, in short: Structure
Unity of Command Principle	Each employe should report to a single manager
Organization Chart	Boxes-and-lines illustration showing chain of formal authority and division of labour.
Tall Organization (hierarchy and control)	An organization in which the hierarchy has many levels relative to the size of the organization
Flat Organization (hierachy and control)	An organization that has few levels in its hierarchy relative to its size
Span of Control	The number of people reporting directly to a given manager. Narrow spans of control raise administrative costs because of additional layers of management Wider spans of control increase organizational efficiency and encourage worker autonomy and participation
Closed System	A relatively self-sufficient entity
Open System	Organism that must constantly interact with its environment to survive.
Learning Organization	Proactively creates, acquires and transfers knowledge throughout the organization
Team Mental Mode	Team members' shared understanding and knowledge about their work environment.
Organizational Structure	“The formal system of task and authority relationships that controls how people are to cooperate, use resources to achieve the organization’s goals.”
Organizational Design	“The process by which managers select and manage various dimensions and components of organizational structure and culture so that an organization can control the activities necessary to achieve its goals.”
Organizational Designs (3 Traditional) (4 Contemporary)	Traditional: 1. Functional organization 2. Divisional organization 3. Matrix organization Contemporary: 1. Horizontal organization 2. Hollow organization 3. Modular organization 4. Virtual organization
Traditional Design	1) Functional structure groups people according to the business functions they perform, for example, manufacturing, marketing and finance 2) Divisional structure groups together activities related to outputs, such as type of product, customer or location 3) Matrix structure combines functional and divisional chains of command to form a grid with two command structures
Principles for designing a Horizontal Organization (5)	1. Organize around complete workflow processes 2. Flatten hierarchy and use teams to manage everything 3. Appoint process team leaders to manage internal team processes 4. Let supplier and customer contact drive performance 5. Provide required expertise from outside the team as required
Hollow Structure and Molecular Structure	Hollow structure organization identifies core competencies and outsources noncore processes to vendors who can do them cheaper or faster (e.g. Apple, Nike, Bharti Airtel) Modular structure Outsources parts of a product instead of processes (e.g. Nissan, Toyota, Boeing)
Contingency approach to organizational Design	Creating an effective Organization-Environment fit.
Mechanistic Organizations	Rigid, command-and-control bureaucracies.
Organic organizations	Fluid and flexible networks of multitalented people.
Centralized decision making	Top managers make all the key decisions
Decentralized decision making	Lower-level managers are empowered to make important decisions
Functional Strucutre Pro's & Cons	+ Can save money by grouping together people who need similar materials and equipment + Enables in-depth knowledge and skill development - Slow response time to environmental changes - Leads to poor horizontal coordination among departments
Divisional Structure Pro's and Cons	+ increase employees’ focus on customers and products, product responsibility and contact points are clear + Allows units to adapt to differences in products, regions, clients - Leads to poor coordination across product lines - Eliminates efficiency of functional departments
Matrix Structure Pros and Cons	+ Flexible sharing of human resources across products + Provides opportunity for both functional and product skill development - Is time consuming; involves frequent meetings and conflict resolution sessions - Causes participants to experience dual authority, which can be frustrating and confusing
Self-Concept	Person's Self-perception as a physical, social, spiritual being.
Cognitions	A person's knowledge, opinions or beliefs.
Self-esteem	Belief about one’s own self worth based on an overall self-evaluation.
Self-efficiacy	Belief in one's ability to do a task
Branden's Six Pillars of Self-Esteem	1.Live Consciously 2. Be self-accepting 3. Take personal responsibility 4. Be self-assertive 5. Live puposefully 6. Have personal integrity
Self-Monitoring	The extent to which a person observes his or her own self-expressive behavior and adapts it to the demands of the situation. Very high self-monitoring can create chameleons (insincere) Very low self-monitoring can create one-way communicators (insensitive to others)
Organizational Identification	Occurs when one comes to integrate beliefs about one’s organization into one’s identity. Identifying to closely with one’s organization has risks such as blind obedience and groupthink
Personality	Stable physical and mental characteristics responsible for a person's identity.
The Big Five Personality Dimensions:	1. Extraversion: outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive 2. Agreeableness: trusting, good-natured, cooperative, softhearted 3. Conscientiousness: dependable, responsible, persistent 4. Emotional stability: relaxed, secure, unworried 5. Openness to experience: intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad-minded
Proactive personality	Action-oriented person who shows initiative and persevers to change things.
Ability & Skill	Ability: Stable characteristic responsible for a person's maximum physical or mental performance. Skill: Specific capacity to manipulate objects.
Emotional Intellegence	Ability to manage oneself and interact with others in mature and constructive ways.
Psychological capital	1. Positive psychological state of development 2. Striving for success by developing one’s self-efficacy (confidence), optimism (positive attributions), hope (goalsetting), and resiliency (bouncing back from pressure and career setbacks).
Humility	Considering the contributions of others and good fortune when gauging one's success.
Definition of Values and Motives in Schwartz's Theory (10)	1. Power 2. Achievement 3. Hedonism 4. Stimulation 5. Self-direction 6. Universalism 7. Benevolence 8. Tradition 9. Conformity 10. Security
Value Conflicts (3)	Intrapersonal Interpersonal Individual-Organization
Practical Research Insights about Work–Family Conflict	Work–family balance begins at home. An employer’s family-supportive philosophy is more important than specific programs. Informal flexibility in work hours and in allowing people to work at home is essential. The importance of work–family balance varies across generations. Take a proactive approach to managing work–family conflict.
Attitude	Learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object
The Nature of Attitudes (3)	1. Affective Component (the feelings or emotions one has about an object or situation) 2. Cognitive Component (the beliefs or ideas one has about an object or situation) 3. Behavioral Component (how one intends to act or behave toward someone or something)
Cognitive Dissonance	Psychological discomfort experienced when attitudes and behaviour are inconsistent.
How to reduce Cognitive Dissonance?	1. Change your attitude or behaviour, or both 2. Belittle the importance of the inconsistent behaviour 3. Find consonant elements that outweigh the dissonant ones
Organizational Commitment	Extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and its goals.
Employee engagement	Extent to which employees give it their all at work.
Job Satisfaction (5 causes)	1. Need fulfillment --> extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill his or her needs. 2. Discrepancies --> satisfaction is a result of met expectations 3. Value attainment --> Extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one's work values 4. Equity: Satisfaction --> A function of how 'fairly' an individual is treated at work. 5. Dispositional/Genetic Components --> satisfaction is partly a function of both personal traits and genetic factors
Organizational Citizenship Behaviours	Employee behaviours that exceed work-role requirements.
Withdrawal cognitions	Overall thoughts and feelings about quitting a job.
Counterproductive work behaviours (CWBs)	Types of behaviour that harm employees and the organization as a whole.
Culture	Beliefs and values about how a community of people should and do act.
Ethnocentrism	Belief that one's native country, culture, language, and behaviour are superior.
Cultural Intelligence	The ability to interpret ambiguous cross-cultural situations accurately.
High-context cultures	Primary meaning derived from nonverbal situational cues.
Low context cultures	Primary menaing derived from written and spoken words
Individualistic Culture	Primary emphasis on personal freedom and choice
Collectivist Culture	Personal goals less important than community goals and interest
Monochronic time	Belief that time is limited, precisely segmented and schedule driven
Polychronic time	Belief that time is flexible, multidimensional, and based on relationships and situations.
Proxemics	Hall's term for the study of cultural expectations about interpersonal space
Cross-Cultural Management	Understanding and Teaching behavioural patterns in different cultures
Expatriate	Anyone living or working in a foreign country
Cross-Cultural Training	Structured experiences to help people adjust to a new culture/country.
Perception	Process of interpreting one's environment
Attention	Being consciously aware of something or someone
Cognitive categories	Mental depositories for storing information
Schema	Mental Picture of an event or object
Script	Mental picture of an event
Implicit Cognition	Any thought or belief that is autmatically activated without conscious awareness.
Stereotypes	Beliefs about the characteristics of a group
Micro Aggressions	Biased thoughts, attitudes, and feelings that exist at an unconscious level.
Galathea Effect	An individual's high self-expectations lead to high performance
Motivation	Psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behaviour.
Content Theory of Motivation (what)	focus on identifying factors such as instincts, needs, satisfaction, and job characteristics that energize employee motivation.
Process Theories of Motivation (How)	Identify the process by which internal factors and cognitions influence motivation.
Maslow's Need Hierarchy	Five Basic needs - psysiological, safety, love, esteem and self-ectualization - influence behaviour.
Aldefer's ERG Theory	- (E) Existence Needs: the need for psysiological and material well-being. - (R) Relatedness Needs: the desire to have meaningful relationships with others. - (G) Growth Needs: the desire to grow as a human being and to use one's abilities to their fullest potential.
Hezberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model	1. Hygiene factors: job characteristics associated with job dissatisfaction E.g. policies, supervision, salary 2. Motivators: job characteristics associated with job satisfaction. E.g. achievement, responsibility, recognition
Adam's Equity Theory of Motivation	Equity theory model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships (inputs versus outcomes)
Negative Inequity	Comparison in which another person receives greater outcomes for similar inputs
Positive inequity	Comparison in which another person receives lesser outcomes for similar inputs.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation	Expectancy theory Holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes
Job Design - Top Down Approaches	Scientific Management (using research and experimentation to find the most efficient way to perform a job) Job Enlargement - Putting more variety into a job Job Rotation - Moving employees from one specialized job to another Job enrichment - Building achievement, recogniton ...

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