Psychology

Pregunta	Respuesta
What is Information Processing?	It is used to explain how we recieve, interpret and respond to information. It describes this information using input, process and output.
What is Memory?	Memory is a cognitive function used to retain and recall information.
What is Cognitive psychology?	Cognition refers to the mental prcoesses needed to make sense of things, e.g. perception, attention, language, thinking, problem solving and memory. Psychologists sometimes use a computer metaphor to explain this.
What is forgetting?	Information that is not processed further will not be retained, therefore forgotten.
What is storage?	Storage is where memories are maintained, either in sensory storage, short-term storage, or long-term storage.
What is Retrieval?	Retrieval is the process of loacting and extracting stored memories.
What are demand characteristics?	The things that encourage participants to act in a certain way. Things serve as a particular cue that may have a person realise the aim of the study can lead to social desirability and them trying to please researchers.
Types of Hypotheses	Experimental/Alternative Null Non-directional/One -tailed Directional/Two-tailed
What types of variables are there?	Independant Variable Dependant Variable Controlled Variables Extraneous Variables Situational Variables Participant Variables
What are experimentor effects?	The influence of the researcher where expectations result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. The researcher may act at an unconcious level and behave in such a way as to bring about their predictions.
What makes something reliable?	Two or more measurements/observations of the same psychological event have produced the same results. These results should also be repeated, to ensure their reliability.
What is validity?	The validity of a test is the extent to which he test measures what it says it is going to measure.
What are the three conditions of experimentor design?	Repeated Measures Independant Groups Matched Pairs
What are the three types of experiments?	Laboratory Field Natural
What did Craik and Lockhart propose in 1972?	In the Levels of Processing model of memory, Craik and Lockhart proposed that there are two different types of rehearsal. Type 1: Maintenance rehearsal (we rehearse information to store if for a short time, strong memory is unlikely) Type 2: Elaborative rehearsal (a deeper consideration of information by giving it meanng, likely to result in a memory being made)
What did Craik and Tulving 1975 find?	Craik and Tulving conducted a laboratory experiment to determine whether recall is affected by the way information is processed. Participants were required to answer yes or no to a question about a word they were shown. There were three types of questions asked that determined how deeply the word was processed: - Ones that required structural processing of a word (physical structure) - Ones that required phonetic processing (the sound the word made) - Ones that required semantic processing (the meaning of a word) They found that words processed at a semantic level more more likely to be recalled. This study provides clear support for the levels of processing model of memory.
Craik and Tulving 1975 Study	Aim: To test the levels of processing theory by investigating whether words processed at different levels would affect recognition of those words. Procedure: 24 Participants were shown 60 words via a tachistoscope and were asked a series of questions about the words. The questions required structural, phonetic or semantic processing. Results: The percentage of words recognised was 17% for those processed at a structural level, 36% for words processed at a phonetic leve, and 65% at a semantic level. Conclusion: Craik and Tulving concluded that recognition was greater for those words that were processed at a semantic level. Deeper processing led to improved recognition, which supports the levels of processing model of memory. Evaluation: Application to real life - The procedure was not realistic. In everyday situations we rarely have to remember meaningless lists of unassociated words and so the procedure presents a simplistic view of memory. Validity - It was carried out in a laboratory experiment so it lacks ecological validity, and people may have struggled if they felt under pressure during the experiment as they were in an unnatural environment. The participants were not told they would have to recall the words later on which made sure they did not consciously try to remember the words. The recall was therefore an accurate reflection of how processing can influence remembering.
Who proposed the Levels of Processing?	Craick an Lockhart, 1972
The Multi-store Model of Memory	- Atkinson and Shiffrin - 1964 - They wanted to show the difference between the types of memory human beings have. - 3 stores and 4 processes
Cue-dependant theory of Forgetting, Tulving 1975	- Applies to long-term memory - States that forgetting occurs when the right cues are not available for memory retrieval - States that memory is dependant on the right cues being available, and forgetting occurs when they are absent Two events necessary for recall: - A memory trace - A retrival cue Cues consist of: Context Dependant cues: the situation, environment or context State Dependant cues: the persons state, emotions or mood Evaluation: - Only explains forgetting from long-term, not-short term memory - The theory is not a complete explanation (it cannot explain why emotionally charged memories can be really vivid without a cue (such as PTSD) - It is hard to prove whether a memory had been revived from the cue or from the memory trace being activated
What is sampling?	Sampling is how you choose participants for your research. It is important the use suitabe participants in studies. The target population are the group of people from whom you draw your sample on. It is not usually possible to test everyone in the target population so therefore psychologists use sampling techniques to choose people who are representative (typical) of the whole population. If the sample is representative you can generalise the results to the wider population.
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?	Prejucide (ATTITUDE) meaning pre-judgement, is defined as having a pre-concieved opinion about someone that is not based on reason or experience. Discrimination (ACTION) is the treatment of different categories of people based on prejudice, especially on grounds of race, age or gender.
What is opportunity sampling?	Opportunity sampling is when the sample is taken from people who are available at the time the study is carried out and that fill the criteria. This is the most common sampling technique used. Advantages: Quick Disadvantages: Not representative
What is Random sampling?	Random sampling is a technique where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen. Advantages: Unbiased Disadvantages: Time consuming
What is the trace decay theory of forgetting?	Trace: A change in neural tissue as a result of a stimulus. This explanation of forgetting assumes that memories leave a trace within the brain. Forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace. If the memory trace is rehearsed then an engram is formed and the memory is saved. Evaluation: Peterson & Peterson support the trace decay theory. They found an interference task prevented rehearsal and lef to trace decay, i.e. forgetting. - Lab experiment (lacks ecological validity) - The problem is that we do recall things we have not thought about for a long time, even if we have not been renewing the memories in the meantime. - Opposing theories: levels of processing (information is not semantically processed leading to forgetting) Cue-dependant (different changes such as context and state can cause poorer memory)
What is fully informed consent?	- Fully informed consent: After being told the aims and procedures of the study, the participant still agrees to take part.
What is Stratified sampling?	Stratified sampling involved classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each category in the same proportions as they are in the population.
What is Volunteer/Self-select sampling?	Self-select sampling consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert.
What was the Cognitive Approach Practical?	Aim: To test whether the different environments within a school has an effect on memory and retrieval. Cue-dependant theory states we need cues that were present when encoding took place if we are to recall the information. Does being in a different environment for learning and recall cause forgetting? Procedure: - 12 Participants (16+) selected by opportunity sampling - Learn a list of 12, 4 letter words in two contexts: - Learn in canteen, recall in canteen - Learn in canteen, recall on the playground - Participants given 1 minute to learn words, 2 minute wait, 1 minute to recall Results: - Canteen/Canteen: 8 -Canteen/Outside: 7 Conclusion: The results show that the cue-dependant theory is corect in that context cues can have an impact on recall. However, in this experiment, the results only slightly differed. Evaluation: - Generalisable: Participants were of different genders, cultures etc however they were all of a similar age (16,17) - Sample: Opportunity sampling was quick, however, the participants selected meant it was biased as people were chosen who were preferred - Reliability: the study used repeated measures and therefore can be replicated - Validity: Ecologically valid (students in a school) No practice effects
What is protection from psychological/physical harm?	Participants should be informed if they are in danger, and should not be put through anything they would not normally experience, unless there is scientific justification.
What is deception?	- Deception: Should not be used unless it is vital to the validity of the experiment. Even then it should only be used where there is scientific justification or there are limited consequences.
What is the Social Approach?	The social approach is the scientific study of the ways in which people's thoughts, feelings and behaviours are affected by other people. It looks at a wide range of social topics, including group behaviour, social perception, leadership, non-verbal behaviour, conformity, aggression and prejudice.
BPS Ethical Guidlines	The BSP guidelines aim to protect the rights and dignity of participants and must be followed when conduction research. These include: - Fully informed consent - Deception - Right to withdraw - Competent - Debriefed - Protection from harm
What does debriefed mean?	Participants must be debriefed at the end of the study, especially if fully informed consent was not given. They should be offered the chance to ask questions and be reminded they can withdraw from the study.
Types of interviews	Structure interview: has a pre-set oder of questions, leaving little room for the researcher to follow up on answers of interest Unstructured interview: The questions are open and the structure of the interview is based but otherwise things are left unspecified to see what emerges Semi-Structured interview: There is a schedule of questions that should be answered but the researcher will have freedom to follow up on some responses.
What is competent? (BPS)	- Competent: Researchers have a responsibility to let participants know if they find problems which could potentially put them in danger. Researchers should also not make judgements about participants unless they are competent (qualified) to do so.
Qualitative and Quantitative data	Qualitative - Qualitative research gathers information that is not in numerical form. - Often uses Open-ended questions, unstructure interviews, and unstructured observations. - Qualitative data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyse than quantitative date. Quantitative - Gathers information that is in numerical or graphical form. - Uses Closed questions that produce answers in numbers or categories.
Difference between interviews and questionnaires	In an interview, the researcher asks each participant the questions. In the questionnaire, the participant fills out the survey on his or her own.

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