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| Pregunta | Respuesta |
| What is an Attachment? | - An attachment can be defined as a close two-way emotional bond between two individuals in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security. (Attachment in humans takes a few months to develop). |
| What is Reciprocity? | - Reciprocity is a description of how two people interact. Mother-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both infant and mother respond to each other's signals and each elicits a response from the other. |
| What is Interactional Synchrony? | - Interactional Synchrony is where a mother and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a co-ordinated (synchronised) way. |
| Describe Meltzoff and Moore's Observation (Caregiver-Interactions). | - 1997 - Meltzoff and Moore observed interactional synchrony in infants as young as 2 weeks - An adult displayed 1 of 3 facial expressions or distinctive gestures - The child's response was filmed and identified by independent observers - An association between the expression/gesture the adult displayed and the babies' action was found |
| Evaluate Caregiver-Infant Interactions. | - Feldman points out synchrony simply describes the behaviour - in an observation, you see what they do, not why the babies do it = difficult to make casual links - It's hard to know what's happening when observing infants - Unsure as to whether what the baby is initiating, is on purpose - Controller observations capture detail, Meltzoff & Moore used filming to record small details which can later be analysed - High validity as it measures what it intends to |
| What Does Grossman Suggest About the Role of the Father? | - 2002 - Grossman carried out a longitudinal study, looking at both parents behaviour & its relationship to the quality of children's attachments into their teens - He suggested that the father's role was less important during adolescence - The father played a role that is more to do with play & stimulation and less to do with nurturing - The quality of the fathers' play with infants was related to the quality of adolescent attachments |
| What Does Field Suggest About the Role of the Father? | - 1978 - Field filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interaction with primary caregiver mothers, primary caregiver fathers and secondary caregiver fathers - She suggested that primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling etc. than the secondary caregiver fathers - This behaviour appears important in building an attachment with the infant relationships - Key to attachment relationships is the level of responsiveness, not the gender of the parent |
| Evaluate Attachment Figures. | - Inconsistent findings on fathers due to researchers looking into different research questions - some try to understand the role, others look into fathers as the primary attachment figure - Fathers generally not becoming primary attachments could be a result of traditional gender roles or due to female hormones (such as oestrogen) = higher levels of nurturing, women are biologically predisposed to be primary attachment figures - Golombok (2004) found children growing up in single/same-sex families do not develop any differently |
| Describe Schaffer & Emerson's Study (Method). | - 1964, designed to measure the infant's attachment - 60 babies (31 male, 29 female) from Glasgow & the majority were skilled working-class families - Babies & mothers were visited at home every month for a year & again at 18 months - Researchers asked mothers what protest their babies showed in 7 everyday seprations, for example, adult leaving the room (a measure of separation anxiety) - Researchers also assessed stranger anxiety - infant's anxiety response to unfamiliar adults |
| Describe Schaffer & Emerson's Study (Findings). | - Between 25 & 32 weeks old, 50% of babies showed signs of separation anxiety towards a particular adult (usually mother) = specific attachment - Attachment was usually a caregiver who was most interactive & sensitive to the infant's signals & facial expressoons (eg. reciprocity) - Wasn't necessarily who the infant soent the most time with |
| Evaluate Schaffer & Emerson's Study. | - Good external validity, as natural observation & low demand characteristics, therefore good external validity - Longitudinal design (strength), therefore better internal validity as they do not have cofounding variable of individual differences between participants - compared to a cross-sectional design - Limited sample characteristics, over 50 years ago - Child-rearing practices vary, therefore cannot generalise well to other social & historical contexts |
| What are the 4 stages of attachment? (Include Age) | -Schaffer & Emerson proposed these 4 stages - Stage 1; Asocial Stage; First few weeks - Stage 2; Indiscriminate Stage; 2-7 months - Stage 3; Specific Attachment; Around 7 months - Stage 4; Multiple Attachments; By 1 year |
| Describe the Asocial Stage. | - The name of this stage is not totally correct because the baby is recognising & forming bonds with its carers - The name of this stage is correct because the behaviour towards non-human objects & humans is quite similar - Babies show a preference for familiar adults - Babies are happiest when in the presence of other humans |
| Describe the Indiscriminate Attachment Stage. | - Babies display more observable social behaviour - Babies prefer people rather than inanimate objects - Babies accept cuddles & comform from any adult - Babies do not show separation anxiety or stranger anxiety - Attachment is indiscriminate because it's not different towards any one person |
| Describe the Specific Attachment Stage. | - Babies show separation anxiety & stranger distress - Babies have separation anxiety from biological mothers in 65% of cases - The baby has formed a specific attachment & the adult is called the "Primary Attachment Figure" - This adult offers the most interaction & responds to the baby's 'signals' with the most skill, however, it's not necessarily who the childs spends the most time with |
| Describe the Multiple Attachment Stage. | - The majority of 1 year olds have multiple attachments - By the age of about 1 year, adults who babies regularly spend time with the 1 year olds are the "Secondary Attachment" |
| Evaluate the 4 Stages of Attachment. | - Problem studying the Ascoial stage as there isn't much observable behaviour due to babie having poor co-ordination & are generally pretty much immobile - Conflicting evidence on Multiple attachment stage, van IJzendoorn et al suggests cultural contexts = multiplr caregivers = norm - collectivist - Measuring multiple attachment = baby distress can also occur with playmates etc, may nit be a 'true' attachment figure - Bowlby says the stages don't distinguish different between playmates & secondary attachment figures |
| Describe Lorenz's imprinting Research (Procedure). | - As an adult researcher Lorenz set up a classic experiment in which he randomly divided a clutxh of goose eggs. Half the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment. The other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz. |
| Describe Lorenz's Imprinting Research (Findings). | - The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere, whereas the control group, hatched in the presence of their mother, followed her. When the two groups were mixed uo the control group continued to follow the mother & the experimental group followed Lorenz. |
| Describe Imprinting in Lorenz's Research & State the Critical Period. | - Imprinting; whereby bird species that are mobile from birth attach to & follow the first moving object they see. - Critical Period; depending on the species, this can be as brief as a fee hours after hatching (or birth). - If Imprinting does not occur within that time, Lorenz found that chicks did not attach themselves to a mother figure. |
| Describe Lorenz's Sexual Imprinting Study. | - 1952 - Lorenz described a peacock that had been reared in the reptile house of a zoo where the first moving objects the peacock saw after hatching were giant tortoises. As an adult this bird would only direct courtship behaviour towards giant tortoises. Lorenz concluded that this meant he had undergone sexual imprinting. |
| Evaluate Lorenz's Research. | - There is a problem with generalising from findings on birds to humans - The mammalian attachment system is quite different from that in birds - Eg, mammalian mothers = show more emotional attention to young than birds do - Some of Lorenz' observations were questioned, eg that imprinting has a permanent effect on mating behaviour - Guiton et al (1966) found that chickens imprinted on washing up gloves but with experience, they learned to prefer mating with other chickens - This suggests that the impact of imprinting is not that permanent |
| Describe Harlow's Research (Procedure & Findings). | - 1958 - Harlow tested the idea that a soft object serves some of the functions of a mother - He reared 16 baby monkeys with two wire model 'mothers' - First condition = was dispensed by the plain wire mothers - Second condition = the milk was dispensed by a cloth-covered mother - it was found that baby monkeys cuddled the soft object in preference & sought comfort from the cloth mother when frightened regardless of which despensed milk - This shows that 'contact comfort' was of more importance to the monkeys than food when it came to attachment behaviour |
| Describe Maternally Deprived Monkeys as Adults. | - Harlow and colleagues also followed the monkeys who had been deprived of a 'real' mother into adulthood to see if early maternal deprivation had a permanent effect - The monkeys reared with wored monkeys only were the most dysfunctional, however, even those with reared with a soft toy as a substitute did not develop normal social behaviour - They were more aggressive & less sociable & bred less often, being unskilled at mating - Some deprived monkeys neglected their young & others attacked their children, even killing them in some cases |
| State the Critical Period for Normal Development (Harlow's Research). | - 90 Days |
| Evaluate Harlow's Research. | - Theoretical Value: Harlow's findings = profound effect on psychologists' understanding of human-mother infant attachment - Harlow showed that attachment doesn't develop due to being fed by a mother figure, but as a result of contact comfort - Harlow showed the importance of the quality of early relationships for later social development & the ability to hold down adult relationships & successfully rear children - Practical Value: Insight into attachment has important applications in practical contexts - Eg, helped social workers understand risk factors in child neglect & abuse & so intervene to prevent it (Howe, 1998) - Findings important in care of captive monkeys, we now understand the importance of proper attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos & in breeding programmes in the wild |
| Evaluate the Ethical Issues with Harlow's Research. | - Unethical as monkeys suffered greatly as a result of Harlow's procedure - This species is considered similar to humans to be able to generalise the findings, which also means that their suffering was presumably quite human-like - Harlow was aware of the suffering he caused - The counter-argument is that Harlow's research was sufficiently important to justify the effects |
| What is the Learning Theory? | - A set of theories from the behaviourist approach to psychology, that emphasise the role of love learning in the acquisition of behaviour. - Dollard and Miller (1950) - They proposed that children learn to love whoever feeds them |
| Describe Classical Conditioning of Attachment. | |
| Describe Operant Conditioning of Attachment (Give Examples). | - Reinforcement is a two-way process - OC can explain why babies cry for comfort - Crying leads to a response from the caregiver, eg, feeding - As long as the caregiver provides the correct response, crying is reinforced - Baby then directs crying for comfort towards the caregiver who responds with comforting 'social suppressor' behaviour - At the same time as the baby is reinforced for crying, the caregiver receives negative reinforcement because the crying stops (escaping from something unpleasant) |
| Describe Attachment as a Secondary Drive. | - As well as conditioning, the learning theory draws on the concept of drive reduction - Hunger can be thought of as primary drive - it's an innate, biological motivator - We are motivated to ear in order to reducr the hunger drive - Sears et al. (1957) suggested that, as caregivers provide food, the primary drive of the hunger becomes generalised to them - Therefore, attachment is a secondary drive learned by an association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary drive |
| Evaluate the Learning Theory and Attachment by Stating the Counter-Evidence from Animal Research. | - A range of animal studies has shown that young animals don't necessarily attach/imprint on those who feed them - Lorenz's geese imprinted before they were fed & mainted attachments regardless of who fed them - Harlow's research is also counter-evidence - In both these animal studies it is clear that attachment isn't due to feeding - The same must be true for humans, eg, food doesn't create the attachment bond - after all, learning theorists believed non-human animals & humans were equivalent |
| Evaluate the Learning Theory and Attachment by Stating the Counter-Evidence from Human Research. | - Research with human infants also shows feeding doesn't appear to be an important factor - Eg, Schaffer & Emerson's study - many babies developed a primary attachment to their biological mother, even though other carers did most of the feeding - These findings are a problem for learning theory as they shows that feeding is not the key element to attachment & so there is no unconditioned stimulus or primary drive involved |
| What is Bowlby's Monotropic Theory? | - 1958, 1969 - Bowlby's theory is described as monotropic because he placed great emphasis on a child's attachment to one particular caregiver & he believed that the child's attachment to this one caregiver is different & more important than others - Bowlby called this person the 'mother' but it was clear that it didn't need to be the biological mother - He believed that the more time spent with this primary attahment figure, the better |
| What Two Principles Did Bowlby Put Forward to Clarify his Monotropic Theory? | - The law of continuity stated that the more constant & predictable a child's care, the better the quality of their attachment - The law of accumulated separation stated that the effects of every separation from the mother add up & 'the safest does is therefore a zero dose' |
| Describe Social Releasers (Bowlby's Monotropic Theory). | - Bowlby suggested that babies are born with a set of innate 'cute behaviours, which include smiling, cooing & gripping, that encourage attention from adults - He called these 'social releasers' as their purpose is to activate the adult attachment system, eg. make adult feel love towards baby - Bowlby recognised attachment is a reciprocal process - Both mother & baby have an innate predisposition to become attached & social releasers tigger the response in caregivers |
| Describe the Critical Period (Bowlby's Monotropic Theory). | - Interplay between adult & infant attachment systems gradually build the relationship between infant & caregiver, beginning in the early weeks of life - Bowlby proposed a critical period around 2 years when the infant attachment system is active - Bowlby viewed this as more of a sensitive period - A child is macimally sensitive at the age of two but, if an attachment is not formed in this time, a child will find it muchharder to form one later |
| Describe the Internal Working Model. | - Bowlby proposed that a child forms a mental representation of their relationship with their primary caregiver - The internal working model is a mental representation we all carry with us of our attachment to our primary caregiver - They carry our perception of what relationships are like |
| Discuss the Mixed Evidence for Monotropy (Evaluation). | - Bowlby believed that babies generally formed one attachment to their primary caregiver, this att. was special, in some wat different from later attachments - Not supported by Schaffer & Emerson (1964), they found most babies attach to one person first, however, they also found a minority able to form multiple attachments at the same time - Unclear whether there is something unique about the first att. - Studies of attachment to mother & father tend to show the att. to mother is more important to predicting later behaviour (eg. Suess et al. 1992) - However, this could simply mean the att. to the primary att. figure is just stronger than other atts. not necessarily that it is different in quality |
| Discuss the Support for Social Releasers (Evaluation). | - Clear evidence to show that cute infant behaviours are intended to initiate social interaction & that doing so is important to the baby - Brazleton et al. (1975) observed mothers & babies during interactions, reporting the existance of interaction synchrony - Study was extended from observation yo experiment - PAF were instructed to ignore their babies signals - Bowlby's 'social releasers' - The babies initially showed some distress but when the att. fig. continued to ignore the baby, some responded by curling up & lying motionless - The children's strong responses support Bowlby's ideas about the significance of infant social behaviour in eliciting caregiving |
| Descrive the Support for the Internal Working Model (Evaluation). | - The ideas of the IWM is testable because it predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed on from one generation to the next - Bailey et al. (2007) assessed 99 mothers with one year old babies on the quality of their attachment to their mothers using standard interview procedure & an observation - It was found that mothers who reported poor attachments to their own parents, were more likely to have children classified as poor according to the observation - This supports that Bowlby's idea of the IWM of att. was being passed through families |
| What are the 3 Main Attachment Types? | - Secure - Insecure-Avoidant - Insecure-Resistant |
| Describe the Three Main Attachment Types. | - Secure Attachment: generally thought of as the most desirable att. type, associated with psychologically healthy outcomes, - Insecure - Avoidant Attachment: an att. type characterised by low anxiety but weak att. - Insecure - Resistant Attachment: an att. type characterised by strong att. & high anxiety |
| What is the Strange Situation? | Ainsworth (1969) - A controlled observation designed to test attachment security - It takes place in a room with quite controlled conditions (eg. lab) with a two-way mirror through which psychologists can observe the infant's behaviour - Infants are assessed on their response to playing in an unfamiliar room, being lest alone, left with a stranger & being reunited with a caregiver |
| State and Describe the Behaviours Used to Judge the Attachment. | - Proximity Seeking: an infant with a good attachment will stay fairly close to the caregiver - Exploration & Secure-Base Behaviour: good attachment enables a child to feel confident to explore, using their caregiver as a secure base, eg. a point of contact that will make them feel safe - Stranger Anxiety: one of the signs of becoming closely attached is a display of anxiety when a stranger approaches - Separation Anxiety: another sign of becoming attached is to protest at separation from the caregiver - Response to Reunion: with the caregiver after separation for a short period of time under controlled conditions |
| Describe the Seven Episodes in the Strange Situation. | Beginning: child & caregiver enter an unfamiliar room 1. The child is encouraged to explore 2. A stranger comes in & tries to interact with the child 3. The caregivers leaves the child & stranger together 4. The caregivers returns & the stranger leaves 5. The caregiver leaves the child alone 6. The stranger returns 7. The caregiver returns & is reunited with the child |
| Describe the Behaviour Each Attachment Type Shows In the Strange Situation. | - Secure Attachment: moderate stranger & separation anxiety & ease of comfort at reunion - Insecure - Avoidant Attachment: low stranger & separation anxiety & little response to reunion - an avoidance of the caregiver - Insecure - Resitant Attachment: high levels of stranger & separation anxiety & by resistance to be conforted at reunion |
| Describe Ainsworth's Findings. | - Ainsworth et al. (1978) - Secure Att. (Type B) - Children explore happily & regularly go back to caregiver, usually show moderate separation & stranger anxiety, require & accept comfort from caregiver at reunion stage - 66% - Insecure - Avoidant Att. (Type A) - Children explore freely & don't seek proximity or show secure base behaviour, show little or no reaction when their caregiver leaves & they make little effort to make contact when the caregiver returns, show little stranger anxiety & don't require comfort at reunion stage - 22% - Insecure - Resitant Att. (Type C) - Children seek greater proximity & so explore less, they show huge stranger & separation distress but resist comfort at reunion stage - 12% |
| Disuss the Support for Validity in the Strange Situation (Evaluation). | - Attachment type as defined by the SS, is strongly predictive of later development - Babies assessed as secure typically = better outcomes in many areas (eg. school, friendships, adulthood etc) - Insecure - Resistant is associated with the worst outcomes including bullying in later childhood (Kokkinons 2007) & adult mental health problems (Ward et al. 2006) - This is evidence for the validity of the concept as it can expkain subsequent outcomes |
| Discuss the Reliability in the Strange Situation (Evaluation). | - The SS shows very good inter-rater reliability - Different observers watching the same children generally agree what att. type to classify - This may be due to SS being a controlled observation & having easy behavioural categories to observe - Bick et al. (2012) looked at inter-rater reliability in a trained team of SS observes & found 94% agreement on att. type for the tested babies - This means we can be confident that the att. type identified by the SS doesn't just depend on who's observing them |
| Discuss the Fact that the Strange Situation may be Culture-Bound (Evaluation). | - Some doubt about the SS being a culture-bound test, eg. doesn't have meaning in countries outside Western Europe & USA due to two reasons - 1. cultural differences in childhood experiences are likely to mean that children respond differently to the SS - 2. caregivers from different cultures behave differently in the SS - Eg. Takahashi (1990) has noted that the test doesn't really work in Japan as mothers are so rarely separated from their babies, there are high levels of separation anxiety - Also, in the reunion stage, Japanese mothers rushed to the baby & scooped thrm, meaning the child's response was hard to observe |
| What are Cultural Variations? | - 'Culture' refers to the norms and values that exist within any group of people. Cultural variations then are the differences in norms & values that exist between people in different groups. (In attachment research we are concerned with the differences in the proportion of children of different attachment types). |
| Describe van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's Cultural Variations Study (Procedure). | - 1988 - They conducted a study to look at the proportions of type A, B & C att. across a range of countries - Also looked at differences within the same countries to get an idea of variations within a culture - Located 32 studies of att. where the SS had been used - 32 studies were conducted in 8 countries, 15 were in the USA - Over 32 studies yielded, results for 1,990 children - Data from 32 studies were meta-analysed, results were combined & weighted for sample size |
| Describe van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's Cultural Variations Study (Findings). | - Secure Att. was the most common with 75% in Britain & 50% in China - Insecure-Resitant was overall the least common, although proportions ranged from 3% i'm Britain to 30% in Israel - Insecure-Avoidant were observed commonly in Germany & least commonly in Japan - Variations between results of studies within tbe same country were actually 150% greater than those between countries - Eg. USA, one study found 46% compared to one sample as high as 90% |
| Describe the Italian Study in Cultural Variations. | - Simonella et al. (2014) study - Researchers assessed 76 12-minth babies using the SS - They found 50% secure, 36% avoidant - The lower rate of secure att. has been found in many studies, researchers suggested this is due to increasing numbers of mothers of young children work long hours & use professional childcare - These findings suggest cultural changes can make a dramatic diff. to patterns of secure & insecure attachment |
| Describe the Korean Study in Cultural Variations. | - Jin et al. (2012) study - The SS assessed 87 children - Overall proportions of insecure & secure babies were similar to those in most countries - However, most classified as insecurely att. were resistant & one was avoidant - This distribution is similar to types found in Japan (van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988) - Japan & Korea have similar child-rearing styles , this similarity might be explained in terms of child-rearing style |
| What Conclusion(s) Were Drawn for Cultural Variations? | - Secure att. seems to be the norm in a wide range of cultures, supporting Bowlby's idea that att. is innate & universal & this type is the universal norm - However, the research also clearly shows that cultural practices has an influence on attachment type |
| Evaluate the Large Samples in Cultural Variations. | - A strength if combining att. results of studies carried out in diff. countries is large samples, eg. van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) meta-analysis, total of nearly 2000 babies & their PAF - Simonella et al. (2014) & Jin et al. (2012) had large comparison groups from previous research, although own samples were smaller - The overall samples size is a strength as large samples increase internal validity by reducing impact of anomalous results cause by bad methodology or unusual ppts |
| Discuss the Fact that Samples Tend to be Unrepresentative of Culture in Cultural Variations (Evaluation). | - Meta-analysis by van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg claimed to study cultural variations, where as, the comparisons were between countries not cultures - One sample may over-represent people living in poverty, the stress which might affect caregiving & hence patterns of att. - Analysis by van IJzendoorn & Sagi (2001) found that distribution of att. type in Tokyo (urban setting) were similar to Western studies, whereas a more rural sample has an over-representation of insecure-resistant individuals - This means that comparisons between countries (eg. Italy or Korea) may have little meaning, the particular cultural characteristics of the sample need to be specified |
| What Does Etic, Emic & Imposed Etic Mean? | - Etic means cultural universals - Emic means cultural uniqueness - Imposed Etic means trying to apply a theory or technique designed for one culture to another culture |
| Discuss the Fact that the Method of Assessment is Biased in Cultural Variations (Evaluation). | - SS was designed by an American based on a British theory - Question over whether Anglo-American theories & assessments can be applied to other cultures (imposed etic) - Eg. of Imposed Etic may be the idea that lack of selaration anxiety & pleasure on reunion indicate an insecure att. in the SS - In Germany, this behaviour might be seen as independence than avoidance & hence not a sign of insecurity within that cultural context (Grossmann & Grossmann, 1990) |
| What is Maternal Deprivation? | - The emotional & intellectual consequences of separation between a child & his/her mother or mother substitute |
| What did Bowlby Propose (Maternal Deprivation)? | - 1951 - Bowlby proposed that continuous care from a mother is essential for normal psychological development, & that prolonged separation from this adult causes serious damage to emotional & intellectual development |
| Discuss the Difference between Separation and Deprivation (Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation). | - Separation means the child not being in the presence of the PAF, which only becomes an issue for development if the child is deprived, eg. they lose an element of care - Brief separations, particularly where the child is with a substitute caregiver, are not significant for development but extended saparations can lead to deprivation, which by definition causes harm |
| Discuss the Critical Period (Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation). | - Bowlby saw the first 30 months of life as a critical period for psychological development - If a child is separated from their mother in the absence of suitable substitute care & so deprived of her emotional care for an extended period during the critical period (Bowlby believed) psychological damage was inevitable |
| Discuss Intellectual Development (in Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation). | - Bowlby believed that if children were deprived of maternal care too long during the critical period, they would suffer mental retardation, characterised by abnormally low IQ, this has been demostrated by studied in adoption - Goldfarb (1947) found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions as apposed to those who were fostered & thus had a higher standard of emotional care |
| Discuss Emotional Development (in Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation). | - Bowlby identified affectionless psychopaths as the inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others - Prevents person from developing normal relationships & is associated with criminality - Affectionless psychopaths cannot appreciate the feelings of victims & so lack remorse for their actions |
| Descrive Bowlby's 44 Thieves Study (Procedure). | - Sample consisted of 44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing - All 'thieves' interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy: characterised as a lack of affection, guilt about own actions & empathy for their victims - Families also interviewed to establish whether the 'thieves' has prolonged early separations from their mothers - A control group of non-criminal but emotionally disturbed young people was set to see how often maternal separation/deprivation occured in the children who were not thieves |
| Descrive Bowlby's 44 Thieves Study (Findings). | - Bowlby (1994) found that 14/44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths - 12/14 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in the first 2 years of their lives - 5 out of the remaining 30 'thieves' had experienced separations - 2/44 of control group had experienced long separations, it was concluded that prolonged early separation/deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy |
| Evaluate the Fact that Evidence maybe be Poor for Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation. | - Bowlby drew a number of sources of evidence for maternal deprivation including studies of children orphaned during WW2, those growing up in poor quality orphanages & 44 thieves study - These are all flawed as evidence, war-orphans were traumatised & often had poor after-care, therefore these factors might be the causes of developmental difficulties rather than separation - children growing up in poor qualty institutions were deprived of many aspects of care, not just mental care - 44 thieves study had major design flaws, most importantly bias as Bowlby himself carried out the assessments for affectionless psychopathy & the family interviews, knowing what he hoped to find |
| Discuss the Counter-Evidence for Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation (Evaluation). | - Not all research supported Bowlby's findings, eg. Lewis ((1954) partially replicated the 44 thieves study on a large scale, looking at 500 young people - In her sample history of early prolonged separation from mother didn't predict criminality or difficulty forming close relationships - This is a problem for Bowlby's theory as it suggests that other factors may affect the outcome of early maternal deprivation |
| Discuss that the Critical Period is Actually more of a Sensitive Period for Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation (Evaluation). | - Bowlby used the 'critical period' as he believed that prolonged separation inevitably cause damage if it took place within that period - Later research has shown that the damage is not inevitable, some cases of very sever deprivation had good outcomes provided the child has social interaction & good aftercare - Eg. Koluchová (1976), reported a case of Czechoslovakian twin boys who were isolated at 18m until 7 years (step-mother kept them locked in a cupboard) - Subsequently, they were looked after by 2 loving adults & appeared to fully recover - Cases like this show that the period identified by Bowlby maybe be 'sensitive' but it cannot be critical |
| What is Institutionalisation? | - A term for the effects of living in an institutional setting - The term 'institution' refers to a place like a hospital or an orphanage where children live for long, continuous periods of time - In such places there is often very little emotional care provided - Former President Nicolai Ceauçescu required Romanian women to have 5 children, many parents couldn't afford to keep their children & the children ended up in huge orphanages in very poor conditions |
| Discuss Rutter's ERA (English & Romanian Adoptee) Study (Procedure). | - Rutter & colleagues (2011) followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain to test to what extent good care could makeup for poor early experiences in institutions - Physical, cognitive & emotional development was assessed at age 4, 6, 11 & 15 years - A group of 52 British children adopted around the same time served as a control group |
| Discuss Rutter's ERA Study (Findings). | - When first arrived in the UK, half of the adoptees showed signs of mental retardation & the majority were severely undernourished - At age 11, the adopted children were showing diff. rates of recovery that related to their age of adoption - The mean IQ for children adopted before age 6m was 102, between 6m & 2 years was 86 & after 2 years was 77, these diff. remained at age 16 (Beckett et al. 2010) - In terms of att., appeared to be a difference in outcome related to whether adoption took place before or after 6m - Children adopted after showed signs of an att, style called disinhibited attachment, those adopted before 6m rarely displayed disinhibited attachment |
| What is a Disinhibited Attachment? (Rutter's ERA Study) | - A type of insecure attachment where children do not form close attachments - Such children will treat strangers with inappropriate familiarity (overfriendliness) & may be attention seeking - Symptoms include attention seeking, clinginess & social behaviour indiscriminately towards all adults, both familiar & unfamiliar |
| Describe the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (Procedure). | - Zeanah et al. (2005), assessed attachment in 95 children aged 12-31m who spent most of their lives in institutional care (average 90%) - They were compared to a control group of 50 children who never lived in an institution - Att. type was measured using the SS, in addition, carers were asked about unusual social behaviour including clingy, attention-seeking behaviour directed inappropriately at all adults (eg. disinhibited att.) |
| Describe the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (Findings). | - 74% of the control group was securely attached in the SS - Only 19% of the institutional group were securely attached, with 65% being classified with disorganised attachment - The description of the disinvited att. applied to 44% of institutional children & less than 20% of the control group |
| Discuss the Disinhibited Attachment as an Effect of Institutionalisation. | - They are equally friendly & affectionate towards people they know well or who are strangers that they just met - This is highly unusual behaviour; remember that most children in their second year show stranger anxiety - Rutter (2006), explained disinhibited att. as an adaptation to living with multiple caregivers during the sensitive period for att. formation - In poor quality institutions, like those in Romania, a child might have 50 carers none of whom they see enough to form a secure att. |
| Discuss Mental Retardation as an Effect of Institutionalisation. | - In Rutter's study most children showed signs of retardation when they arrived in Britain, however, most of those adopted before 6m caught up with the control group by age 4 - It appears that, like emotional development, damaged to intellectual development as a result of institutionalisation can be recovered provided adoption takes place before 6m - the age at which att. forms (Schaffer & Emerson) |
| Evaluate Real-Life Application (Romanian Orphan Studies: Effects of Institutionalisation). | - Studying Romanian orphans has enhanced our understand of the effects of institutionalisation - Such results led to improvements in the way children are cared for in institutions (Langton 2006), eg. orphanages & childrenms homes avoid large numbers of caregivers for each child & ensure that a smaller # of people (perhaps 1 or 2), play a centre role for the child (this person os called a key worker) - Having key workers = children has the chance to develop normal attachments & helps avoid disinhibited att. - this shows that such research has been immensely valuable in practical terms |
| Evaluate 'Fewer Extraneous Variables than other Orphan Studies'. | - Many orphans before Romanian orphans became available to study but too often these studies involved children to experienced loss or trauma before they were institutionalised, eg. they experienced neglect, abuse or bereavement - These children were often traumatised by their experiences & suffered bereavement - It was very hard to observe the effects of institutionalisation in isolation because children were dealing with multiple factors which functioned as cofounding participant variables - In the case of Romanian orphans it has been possible to study institutionalisation without these cofounding variables, which means the findings increased internal validity |
| Evaluate 'The Romanian Orphanages were not Typical'. | - Although much useful data about institutionalisation came out of Romanian orphan studies, it's possible that conditions were so bad = results can't be applied to understanding the impact of better quality institutional care - Eg. Romanian orphanages = poor standards of care to forming any relationship w/ children & extremely low levels of intellectual stimulation - Limitation of Romanian orphan studies as the unusual situational variables means the studies may lack generalisability after all |
| Discuss the Internal Working Model in terms of Attachment & Later Relationships. | - IWM is crucial as this template will powerfully affect the nature of their future relationships, eg. a child with a first experience of a loving relationship w/ a reliable caregiver will tend to assume this is how relationships are meant to be - They will seek out functional relationships & behave functionally with in them, eg. without either being too involved/emotionally close (avoidant) or being too controlling/argumentative (resistant) |
| Discuss Relationships in Later Childhood. | - Att. type is associated w/ quality of perr relationships in childhood - Securely att. infants tend to form the best quality childhood friendships, whereas insecurely att. have friendship difficulties (Kerns, 1994) - Bullying behaviour can be predicted by att. type, Myron-Wilson & Smith (1998) assessed att. type & bullying involvement using standard questionnaires in 196 children aged 7-11 in London, securely were unlikely to be involved in bullying, avoidant = most likely victims, resistant = most likely to be bullies |
| Discuss McCarthy's Study (Relationship in Adulthood with Romantic Partners). | - McCarthy (1999) study of attachment, romantic relationships & friendships - Studied 40 adult women who were assessed as when they were infants to establish early attachment type - Those assessed as securely att., had the best friendships & relationships, those assessed resistant as infants had particular problems maintaining friendships, whilst avoidant struggled with intimacy in romantic relationships |
| Discuss Hazan & Shaver's Study (Procedure: Relationships in Adulthood with Romantic Partners). | - Hazan & Shaver (1987) conducted a study of the association between att. & adult relationships, they analysed 620 replies to a 'love quiz' printed in an American local newspaper - Quiz had 3 sections, 1st section assessed current/most important relationship, 2nd section assessed general love experiences (eg. # of partners), 3rd section assessed att. type by asking respondants to choose which of 3 statements best drscribed their feelings |
| Discuss Hazan & Shaver's Study (Findings: Relationships in Adulthood with Romantic Partners). | - 56% of respondants were identified as securely attached w/ 25% avoidant & 19% resistant - Those reporting secure att. were most likely to have good & longer lasting romantic experiences - Avoidant respondents tended to reveal jealousy & fear of intimacy, these findings suggest that patterns of attachment behaviour are reflected in romantic relationships |
| Discuss Relationships in Adulthood as a Parent. | - IWM also affect the child's ability to parent their own children, people tend to base their parenting style on their IWM so att. type tends to be passed through generations of a family - Bailey et al (2007) considered the att. of 99 mothers to their babies to their own mothers, mother-baby att was assessed by SS & mother-own mother att. was assessed using adult att. interview - The majority of women had the same att. classification both to their babies & their own mothers |
| Evaluate 'Evidence on Continuity of Attachment Type is Mixed' (Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships). | |
| Evaluate 'Most Studies have Issues of Validity' (Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships). | |
| Evaluate 'Association does not mean Causality' (Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships). |
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