Originated from Tarde, who
argued there were key
characteristics to imitation. Were
ways our behaviour + responses
could be influenced by others
behaviour
of role
models
copying
behaviour of those
of a higher status
degree of
contact with
role model
degree of
understanding
of behaviour
Bandura developed this by combining logic of
social + cognitive psychology. Behaviour may
be motivated by more socio environmental
factors. Individual + environment were linked =
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
SLT had 4 basic processes
Attention: how much
do you concentrate
on the model showing
the behaviour?
Retention: storing
behaviour you
witnessed
Reproduction:
copying behaviour
witnessed
Motivation: having a good
reason for showing witnessed
behaviour again e.g.
real/imaginary incentive
Central part of these processes
was presence of role model.
Would be a person similar to the
child (in age/sex) / position of
power e.g. popstar/parents
While the role model is important, child
must have a level of self confidence to imitate
behaviour = SELF EFFICACY
Bandura et al.
Bobo Doll Studies
Deindividuation
Definition: when in a crowd/
wearing a mask + identity is hidden,
we become aggressive e.g. internet
trolls, riots + football matches
Aroused when
individuals crowds
/ large groups.
Fraser + Burchall - 'a process whereby
normal constraints on behaviour are
weakened as a person loses their sense
of individuality
Other factors that contribute
include anonymity (wearing a
uniform) + altered
consciousness with drugs /
alcohol
Likely to be aggressive as lost
individuality leads to reduced self
restraint, + thus deviant +
impulsive behaviour, as well as
reduced attention to how
behaviour might be evaluated
Zimbardo: individual behaviour =
rational + conforms to social norms,
deindividuated behaviour = based on
primitive urges + does not conform
People refrain from behaviour
as norms label it as uncivilised +
they are easily identifiable (can
be sanctioned for it). Thus in a
crowd reduces inner restraints
However it must be considered
that deindividuation does not
always lead to aggressive
behaviours e.g. peace rallys
Institutional Aggression
e.g police, military,
criminal + terrorist groups
Situational Factors
Status + Power
(Abu Ghraib) suggests due to low position
of reservists finally had opportunity to
exercise power over something lower than
themselves. (Zimbardo) guards were using
new found power over prisoners in a
situation that was unlikely to happen. No
one in authority watching - more likely to
act on impulse
Zimbardo's
stanford prison
study, Abu Ghraib
Revenge +
retaliation
(Abu Ghraib) acting out of revenge against Islamists,
humiliation them was 'teaching a lesson'. (Zimbardo)
guards wanted to retaliate against prison riot, undermined
their authority, also resulted in humiliating orders
Deinviduation
Concealed identity of officers +
guards allowed them to vent violent
and selfish impulses, displayed
behaviour instantly in response to
situation with reasoning
Dispositional (Individualistic)
Factors
Irwin + Cressey's
importation model
(prisoner+prisoner assaults)
social histories + traits are brought
into prison environment -
influences their adaptation to
situation. We don't enter as blank slates.
(Abu Ghraib) General Myers described officers as
' a few bad apples', not systematic in military.
(Hellman) middle class background mage him
used to having stays over others, easier for him to
initiate degrading behaviour.
Hellman, Abu
Ghraib
Authoritarian
Personality
a state of mind or attitude characterised by belief in
absolute obedience or submission to one's own
authority, as well as the administration of that belief
through the oppression of one's subordinates.
Are they an
excuse?
Bio.
Explanations
Genetics
Developed by Sandberg, first identified
the 47 XYY karyotype as gives males a
predisposition to aggression
Court-Brown - those with
the extra Y chromosome
should be hospitalised due to
their increased likelihood to
be aggressive
Jacobs et al
unreliable - further
examination of these males
found they were more likely
to be convicted of non
violent crime than violent
ones
some with XY pattern were
violent= hypothesis can't
explain violent behaviour
Adoption studies have
been used to investigate
genetic contribution
Mednick et al
Rhee + Waldman - meta
analysis
Brain structure
Bard and
Mountcastle (era
dependent), animals
concluded
hypothalamus increases
aggression + cerebral
cortex reduces it
Phineas Gage
case study
Other research suggests
amydalectomy can reduce
violent behaviour but emotion
is lost (mechanistic)
The frontal lobe has also
been claimed to influence
aggression - closely
linked to amygdala +
hypothalamus
Research found people
with frontal lobe damage
were often short tempered
+ impulsive
Biochemical/
neurotransmitter
influences
Nelson's research found a positive
correlation with level of androgens
(testosterone) in the body + level of
aggressive behaviour in male +
female prisons
Wagner et al.
Basal model of testosterone:
testosterone levels influence level of
dominance- more testosterone, more
competitive + thus dominant
Reciprocal model: testosterone
levels are influenced by
individual's level of dominance
Mazur + Booth found men have
reduced testosterone levels when
married - reduced level of dominance
Putnam + Larson
found the
neurotransmitter
serotonin had an
inhibitory function.
Kyes et al
Dopamine released during
aggressive actions = activates
reward system + makes individual
feel pleasure from acting
aggressively (Bio + Behavioural)
Evolutionary
Explanations
Aggression serves an important function for
individual survival + procreation. Competition
arises when resources are limited + thus species
must compete to increase their own 'fitness'
Newman et al found forms of a gene
linked to aggression in macaque monkeys
have been around for at lease 25 million
years - must give an advantage
Must be programmed to be
aggressive (deterministic)
Craig- animal's aim when fighting
is not to destroy but to get rid of the
threat's presence
Lorenz's functions
of aggression
Help ensure only fittest + strongest
are selected to reproduce ( females
pick males with greatest chance of
survival for them and offspring)
Ensure survival of the
young (parents show
aggression when protecting
offspring)
Help distribute species in
a balanced - animals would
have their own territories
Social organisation + relationships, animals show ritualised
aggression as a basis for the assertion of power + status.
Like Craig he argued little harm occurred from ritualised
aggression (Rugby, Haka + Boxing,Weigh ins)
Era dependent + over
simplified
Fromm: Human Aggression
can be benign / malignant.
Nelson claims Lorenz
should've considered 3 basic
factors
Structural causes: nature of
social life. A society with no
norms/rules, where
aggression is widespread
Psychological causes: other factors
than instinct, personal (mood/feelings)
+ situational (heat/overcrowding
Process of learning: Bandura found aggression can
be learnt via VICARIOUS LEARNING. Can be shaped
by learning strategies e.g anger management
Victims aren't seen as fellow
humans. Rapoport= 'we can attach
the label enemy to categories of
things..." - can be other people
Weapons used = destructive, not ritualistic.
Tinbergen suggests while human fight each other
as animals do, it isn't for a ritual (e.g. mating) but
from a deep rooted desire to harm each other
Kruger et al = the evolutionary approach
investigates how skills + methods have
evolved into behaviour.
Some argue since the Pleistocene era when many
skills were developed, evolution has been static. A
series of psychological mechanisms affect
behaviour + these are universal. Behaviour
witnessed is said to be closely linked to the
reproductive success of the individual.
Aggression could be a result of reproductive
competition. Females invest in terms of
parental issues (time, energy + food). Males
compete for females to pass on genes
(inter-sexual selection)
Aggressive behaviour in males help ensure
reproductive success. Kenrick et al = men have compete
to gain access to women. Dominant idea today is 'a
provider of valuable resources', meaning men need to
be more assertive + aggressive
Waller = humans have evolved in
groups, need to define boundaries of
behaviour, creating an in group (us) +
an out group (them).
Examples of this behaviour (genocide,
mass killings) could be caused by our
ancestral past, in which XENOPHOBIA
leads to acts of aggression + violence
Buss reminds us how male to
male violence can't explain all
forms of aggression
In women, verbal aggression is more common. Female to
female aggression is often aimed to reduce the attractiveness
of competitors in the eyes of males, a strategy which gives
the name-caller the advantage.
Infidelity + Jealousy
Infidelity = the process of being unfaithful to your
partner, can include having sexual relationships
with someone other than your partner
Aggression is argued to be the most
common response to these situations
= aggressive behaviour has an
important function for survival +
procreation
Jealousy = the feeling of
being threatened by a rival
in a romantic relationship.
Influences acts of
aggression
Infidelity triggers an emotional state in
individuals, it is a perceived threat to the person's
relationship + status quo.
Buss et al = with this people tend to
demonstrate behaviour, often
aggressive + violent, in order to
reduce/eliminate threat.
Brunk et al. = for males sexual infidelity creates
paternity uncertainty + thus increases the risk of
cuckoldry. If there is suspicion of their partner
being unfaithful, it can lead to anger + aggression
Buss suggests males have a no. of strategies to specifically
keep their mate. These include direct guarding + negative
inducements to deter them from straying.
An example of direct guarding is 'vigilance' -
coming home unexpectedly to check what their
partner is up to.
As for negative inducements
- threats for any infidelity
Wilson et al
For women, emotional infidelity is more distressing = may
lead to lack of resources for themselves + offspring. This can
stem from the man's suspicions of her being unfaithful
Canary et al = couples with relationship conflicts
commonly reported anger + aggression being linked with
jealousy. Could be an adaptive measure to make partner
worry about their safety, if they were to commit infidelity
However it may be that some violent males lack
effective ways of mediating + responding to
such situations compared to non violent males
(socialisation)
Haden + Hojiat
(gender
differences)
Harvey et al summarises research in this area = varied
+ focuses on different causal factors e.g. jealousy.
Suggests it plays a role as an underlying influence
Group Display (Sport +
Warfare) institution
could be used
Warfare = Malignant, not
instinctive. Sport = Benign,
instinct to be the best
player so team can win
Xenophobia
Warfare - enemies are out group,
based on boundaries which
humans need to live in as they
have evolved in that environment.
Want social dominance
Sport - Home team is in group, when fellow
supporters meet they feel apart of the same
group. Other team supporters are seen as
the out group, treated in an aggressive
manner = want social dominance
Deindividuation = uniform reinforces the
in group and the out group status +
dislike between them. Lowers inhibitions
Reproductive
Success
Sport- Men want to be the best
player in order to have more
choice in who they reproduce
with. To do this, they must act
aggressively as it will ensure their
reproductive success
Aggression's
functions
Sport- ritualised aggression can
be present in different forms of
social organisation
(packs=teams). Rugby players
perform the hakka to reinforce
their power over the other pack
Warfare- People join
together to perform their
deep rooted desires to harm
others. Weapons are used =
not destructive (AO2)
SLT
Those in higher ranks will be
more aggressive in order to be
successful, lower ranks see this
success + recreate behaviour
through vicarious learning
Freud
the mindset of individuals in a
crowd differs from the mindset of an
individual. Merging of minds within
group based on sharing the same
opinion, enthusiasm lowers
inhibitions. Explains PTSD
Emergent norm
theory (Turner
+Killian)
Crowd behaviour isn't irrational but
based on group's collective purpose at
the time e.g. cheer for team. Can
change over time/ with specific factors
(result of match)- external factors
When groups come together there are few established norms
= few indications of what behaviour is expected. When
distinctive behaviour is displayed e.g. violence, it then becomes
the norm which other conform to. Crowds = mass of intelligent
individuals, while behaviour is unpredictable it is governed by
acceptable norms in the group.
Social Identity
theory (Reicher)
Counters ENT. Claims group
behaviour involves inter-group
behaviour e.g. opposing sports
fans. T + K underemphasise
this.
Even in the absence of direct confrontation there can
be symbolic confrontation between groups. Before
gathering individuals shared a sense of social identity =
promotes belonging in group. Discover norms + assign
the stereotypes of the group to themselves