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Media Theories
- Structural Theory
involves semiotics,
structuralism and
post-structuralism...
- Semiotics is the study
of codes or languages
and the signs from
which they are made,
like spoken or written
language. To steps to
reading signs are
denotation and
connotation (symbolic).
- Saussure (1983) suggests
we read media texts on
three levels: Syntactic level
– basic denotations of the
text Representational level
– representations
conveyed in the text
Symbolic level – hidden
cultural or symbolic
meanings
- Barthes (1967)
developed Saussure's
ideas suggesting that
our understadning on
media texts rely on
the texts' relationship
to frequently told
stories/myths in our
culture
- For Barthes, the final layer of
signification relates to
cultural meaning. For
example, the Cinderella myth
suggests that Men are active
and women are passive.
- For Barthes, the final layer of
signification relates to
cultural meaning. For
example, the Cinderella myth
suggests that Men are active
and women are passive.
- Fiske (1982) warns
there is a tendency to
read connotations as if
they were slef-evident
truths
- Signs are split into the
signifier and the
signified. An iconic
image has a signifier
that bears close to the
object being signified.
An indexical sign
assums a relationship
between the signifier
and the signified.
Symbolic signs have no
obvious relationship
beteen the signifier and
the signified.
- Signifier: visible
part of a sign e.g. an
image/letter.
Signified: the idea,
meaning or concept
represented by the
signifier. Their
relationship is
arbitary. It relies
upon culture.
- Symbolic signs make
up most of spoken
language and media
language.
- Signifier: visible
part of a sign e.g. an
image/letter.
Signified: the idea,
meaning or concept
represented by the
signifier. Their
relationship is
arbitary. It relies
upon culture.
- In the exam, it is
key to look at both
HOW a chosen sign
influences meaning
and WHY a
particular sign has
been chosen
- Saussure (1983) suggests
we read media texts on
three levels: Syntactic level
– basic denotations of the
text Representational level
– representations
conveyed in the text
Symbolic level – hidden
cultural or symbolic
meanings
- Structuralism utilises a
semiotic perspective in
which societies, cultural
practivces and artefactslike
media texts, can be
anayslysed as languages or
signifying systems.
- Barthes (1974) argued that there
are 3 narrative codes identifiable
across media texts: action codes
(a series of actions that allow the
viewer to become absorbed in the
narrative) enigmatic codes
(structuring the plot sequence
arond a series of questions that
maintain audiences interest and
fascination in the text) and
symbolic codes (identifying a texts
major structuring themes, often
expressed in binary opposites e.g.
man or woman or in
PHYSCO-ANALYTIC THEMES e.g.
father versus son)
- Physco-analytic
themes: based on th
rok of SIGMUND FREUD
arguing that human
actions are often
motivated by repressed
sexual fears and
desires.
- Physco-analytic
themes: based on th
rok of SIGMUND FREUD
arguing that human
actions are often
motivated by repressed
sexual fears and
desires.
- Auteur theory: suggests that the
director is the author of the fim and
that film reflects his or her particular
visual style, themes, values and
ideologies
- Grist (2000) argued that the films
of director Martin Scorsese
always exmplore themes of
masculinity and repression.
- Grist (2000) argued that the films
of director Martin Scorsese
always exmplore themes of
masculinity and repression.
- Barthes (1974) argued that there
are 3 narrative codes identifiable
across media texts: action codes
(a series of actions that allow the
viewer to become absorbed in the
narrative) enigmatic codes
(structuring the plot sequence
arond a series of questions that
maintain audiences interest and
fascination in the text) and
symbolic codes (identifying a texts
major structuring themes, often
expressed in binary opposites e.g.
man or woman or in
PHYSCO-ANALYTIC THEMES e.g.
father versus son)
- Post-structuralism challenegs
many of the assumptions of
structuralism, that a text has
one meaning, emphasising the
different meanings an audience
can create. Emphasises the
arbitary nature between
signifiers and signified
- There are a number of
realtionships between
post-structuralism and
post-modernism
- There are a number of
realtionships between
post-structuralism and
post-modernism
- Semiotics is the study
of codes or languages
and the signs from
which they are made,
like spoken or written
language. To steps to
reading signs are
denotation and
connotation (symbolic).
- Political Theory
- Marxism and Hegemony
- Marxism in media suggests that the view of the world
constructs media to persuade the proletetariat to accept
capitalism as natural whilst distracting them from explaining
about exploitation
- Gramsci introduced hegemony
using the theory to explain how
popular culture contributed to the
manufacturing of consent for
bourgeoisie power within capitalist
societies
- Hegemony: the process by which a power elationship is accepted,
consetned to and seen as natureal or as 'common sense'. Though it
focuses on on class, it can be applied to power relations found in
gender, sexuality and race.
- For example, it can be suggested that repeated
media representations of middle-class people in
positions of power, control and leadership, such as
reading the nes, suggest that class division in
society are 'common sense'
- Hegemony: the process by which a power elationship is accepted,
consetned to and seen as natureal or as 'common sense'. Though it
focuses on on class, it can be applied to power relations found in
gender, sexuality and race.
- Chomski and Herman (1998) argue that the
media manipulates populations to prevent
them from rebelling against the powerful or
dominant classes. This filtering on
infromation is not done intentionally, but is
often based on the media institutions need
for profit and to appeal to customers
- The political-economy
approach criticizes the
Marxist theory, in that it
assumes the adueince is
passive and easily
manipulated by media
producers.
- Stuart Hall's (1981)
interpretation
Gramsci's concept of
hegemony emphasises
that consent for
bourgeoisie is fragile,
fleeting and has to be
constantly worked at
and re-established.
Suggesting that
popular culture is a
site for the
contestation over
ideologies, values and
hegemony, and does
not merely
manufacture consent.
- A close examination of many
popular media texts suggests
that texts are polysemic
(open to a range o fidfferent
meanings and
interpretations)
- Gramsci introduced hegemony
using the theory to explain how
popular culture contributed to the
manufacturing of consent for
bourgeoisie power within capitalist
societies
- Marxism in media suggests that the view of the world
constructs media to persuade the proletetariat to accept
capitalism as natural whilst distracting them from explaining
about exploitation
- Liberal Plurism
- Challenges Marxist approaches as it sees society as being made up of
competing interest groups, rather than seeing society as dominated by the
bourgeoisie. Liberal Plurism does not understand media as operating to
maintain the hegemony of the bourgeoisie, but rather the media is
perceieved to be subject to the wishes of its consumers. This is supported
by market-liberalism approach.
- Liberal plurists
argue that
instead of
media
conveying
hegemonic
values, a range
of views are
passed through
the media. The
Liberal-plurist
perspective
suggests
thataudiences
select anf
rejectfrom a
range of
opinions/values
offered by the
media. Offers a
more active
approach of the
audience than
Marxist does.
- Also suggests media
can operate as a
crucial elemtnof
democracy by
reporting events on TV,
news and newspapers,
keeping the electorate
informed about
Government actions
and the legal system.
- Del Sola Poole
(1977) suggests
that new media
allows a
'flowering of
hundreds of
different voices'
- Also suggests media
can operate as a
crucial elemtnof
democracy by
reporting events on TV,
news and newspapers,
keeping the electorate
informed about
Government actions
and the legal system.
- Liberal plurists
argue that
instead of
media
conveying
hegemonic
values, a range
of views are
passed through
the media. The
Liberal-plurist
perspective
suggests
thataudiences
select anf
rejectfrom a
range of
opinions/values
offered by the
media. Offers a
more active
approach of the
audience than
Marxist does.
- Feminism and Queer
theory raise questions
about the political
significance of the
media as it is believed
thta media tends to
under-represent some
political and social
groups as well as their
views and values.
- When a group is not visible in the
media it implies, as Graham Murdoch
(1999) argues, that the group is not
includedin the dominant perception
of society.
- When a group is not visible in the
media it implies, as Graham Murdoch
(1999) argues, that the group is not
includedin the dominant perception
of society.
- Challenges Marxist approaches as it sees society as being made up of
competing interest groups, rather than seeing society as dominated by the
bourgeoisie. Liberal Plurism does not understand media as operating to
maintain the hegemony of the bourgeoisie, but rather the media is
perceieved to be subject to the wishes of its consumers. This is supported
by market-liberalism approach.
- Marxism and Hegemony
- Feminism and Post-Feminism
- Feminists (late 60's and 70's) argued that
the social divisions in society benefit men
in terms of ork and eductaional
oppurtunities, wages and access to
political and economic power. They argue
that there is an emphasis on sexuality
and physical appeareance in the
representation of women in the media.
- Laura Mulvey (1975)
argued that
mainstream
hollywood film was
the product of a
male-dominated and
controlled industry.
So that, men
controlled the action
and were
repsonsible for
moving the
narrative along,
omen were
represented as
passive objects of
the male gaze, and
pleasure in viewing
comes from
voyeurism,
narcissism and
scopophilia.
- Narcissism:
identification
with or erotic
appeal of an
idealised image
of onself.
Scopopohilia:
finding pleasure
in looking at
other people as
objects.
- Try to avoid using simplistic use
of theories. Theory is a starting
point to indicate a particular
way of looking at a text. Need to
be used carefully and crticially
in relation to the text.
- It is difficult to apply Mulvey's thoery to all
media texts, TV for example is intended for
a glance not a gaze with greater emphasis
on sound.
- Gammon and Marshment (1988( argue against Mulvey's thory,
suggetsing thta in recent years the number of texts have
represented men as objects for the female gaze. They also suggest
that women viewers are active, engaging critically with tmedia texts
by selecting texts that have meaning for them.
- Laura Mulvey (1975)
argued that
mainstream
hollywood film was
the product of a
male-dominated and
controlled industry.
So that, men
controlled the action
and were
repsonsible for
moving the
narrative along,
omen were
represented as
passive objects of
the male gaze, and
pleasure in viewing
comes from
voyeurism,
narcissism and
scopophilia.
- Post-Feminism: feminism is no longer
necessary due to the introduction of equal
pay for work, equal rights, and increased
women in higher education. It is argued that
many new texts take a playful and irreverent
attitude to gender divisions.
- Judith Butler (1999) suggests that gender is not the result
of nature but is socially constructed. Male and female
behaviour is reinforced through society media and culture.
She refers to over-exagerated representations on men and
women as GENDER TROUBLE (refers to any behaviour and
representation that disrupts culturally accpeted nations of
gender)
- Judith Butler (1999) suggests that gender is not the result
of nature but is socially constructed. Male and female
behaviour is reinforced through society media and culture.
She refers to over-exagerated representations on men and
women as GENDER TROUBLE (refers to any behaviour and
representation that disrupts culturally accpeted nations of
gender)
- Queer theory
- Butler's theory of gender trouble have
also been linked to queer theory, hich
explores and challenges the ay in which
hetrosexuality is constructed as normal,
and the media has limited
representations of gay men and women.
- Queer suggests that sexual identity is more fluid. Queer also suggetss there are
different ways of interpreting new meid atexts by looking at the fluidity of gender
representation.
- Queer suggests that sexual identity is more fluid. Queer also suggetss there are
different ways of interpreting new meid atexts by looking at the fluidity of gender
representation.
- Butler's theory of gender trouble have
also been linked to queer theory, hich
explores and challenges the ay in which
hetrosexuality is constructed as normal,
and the media has limited
representations of gay men and women.
- Feminists (late 60's and 70's) argued that
the social divisions in society benefit men
in terms of ork and eductaional
oppurtunities, wages and access to
political and economic power. They argue
that there is an emphasis on sexuality
and physical appeareance in the
representation of women in the media.
- Post-colonialism
- Race - British and other EU powers held large colonial
empires in Africa, Asia and South America. There are no
colonial empires to this day. However, it is suggested that
colonialism still has an impact on modern day businesses and
media/media representations.Post-colonialism does not
emphasise a new, technologically inter-related media world,
but the importance of the cultural, economic, political, and
military cominance of the past.
- Edward (1995) introdcued the concept of
ORIENTALISM (a perspective that auggests
the East and Orient are presented as
provoking both fear and fascination within
Western culture). He argued that this sense
of the Orient is central to the development of
European Culture, hich has constructed itself
in relation to and against their images of the
Orient.
- Thos who have
suffered this migration
may have develpped a
sense of DIASPORA
IDENTITY (the result of
forced or voluntary
migration where people
experience both a sense
of belonging to a
cultural group that is
'other' to the dominant
culture of their country
of residence). This
sense of alientation
could be derived from
their lack of
representation in
contemporary media.
- Alvarado (1987) suggested that there are four types of
represetnations for members of the black community:
the humorous (comedians like Lenny Henry) the exotic
(models like Naomi Campbell) the pitied
(represetnations of needy black communities through
charity advertising) the denagerious (portrayed in news
and documentary)
- Historically, black and asian people are represented
negatively, such as the villain, or take subserviant, or 'helper'
roles rather than the hero. Representations of race and gender
are often constructed in terms of binary oppositions, for
example black and white. The rise in black British community
media production could explain the increase in diversity and
frequency of representing different races.
- TERRORIST can be defined by: religious or
national extremis, illogical and irrational
behaviour, disregard for human life, sexism,
frequent use of violence and cruelty and
often characterised as ethniclly Middle
Eastern or Arab.
- TERRORIST can be defined by: religious or
national extremis, illogical and irrational
behaviour, disregard for human life, sexism,
frequent use of violence and cruelty and
often characterised as ethniclly Middle
Eastern or Arab.
- Historically, black and asian people are represented
negatively, such as the villain, or take subserviant, or 'helper'
roles rather than the hero. Representations of race and gender
are often constructed in terms of binary oppositions, for
example black and white. The rise in black British community
media production could explain the increase in diversity and
frequency of representing different races.
- Alvarado (1987) suggested that there are four types of
represetnations for members of the black community:
the humorous (comedians like Lenny Henry) the exotic
(models like Naomi Campbell) the pitied
(represetnations of needy black communities through
charity advertising) the denagerious (portrayed in news
and documentary)
- Thos who have
suffered this migration
may have develpped a
sense of DIASPORA
IDENTITY (the result of
forced or voluntary
migration where people
experience both a sense
of belonging to a
cultural group that is
'other' to the dominant
culture of their country
of residence). This
sense of alientation
could be derived from
their lack of
representation in
contemporary media.
- Edward (1995) introdcued the concept of
ORIENTALISM (a perspective that auggests
the East and Orient are presented as
provoking both fear and fascination within
Western culture). He argued that this sense
of the Orient is central to the development of
European Culture, hich has constructed itself
in relation to and against their images of the
Orient.
- Race - British and other EU powers held large colonial
empires in Africa, Asia and South America. There are no
colonial empires to this day. However, it is suggested that
colonialism still has an impact on modern day businesses and
media/media representations.Post-colonialism does not
emphasise a new, technologically inter-related media world,
but the importance of the cultural, economic, political, and
military cominance of the past.
- Audience theory
- Audiences have become increasingly important given new
media (interent, Ipods, Satelite TV, DVD's and user-demand
TV, such as Tivo and Sky). These technologies increase
audience control, and allow audiences and producersto
become more fluid.
- Different ways of
consuming media texts:
primary media (films
shown in cinemas
demand close and
concentrated attention
from the aduience)
secondary media (radio
and TV programming
provide a backround
for an audience who
are often doing
something else at the
same time) tertiary
media (media texts
consumed by
audiences who are
almost unaware of
their own engagement
with the media)
- Gerbner (1956) suggested messages do not just flow
from the text to the audience, but instead there is
another step in the process as audiencesdiscuss the
ideas they acquire from media with each other. They
may debated and challenge the values and ideologies
that the media conveys, hich consequently reduces
the power of the text.
- Audiences have the pwoer to choose the media they consume to suit their needs. .
Blumler and Katz (1974) suggetss that audience uses media socially anf for psychological
gratification. Other examples of the uses audiences make of media include: sharing and
discussing experiences with others, oobtaining information about the world, helping to
gain idenitity. Examples of the gratifications audiences may gain from the media include:
finding a distraction or diversion, seeing euthority figures inflated or exhalted, seeing
others make mistakes or making fools of themselves, reinforcing a belefi that justice will
untimately triumph.
- Gerbner (1956) suggested messages do not just flow
from the text to the audience, but instead there is
another step in the process as audiencesdiscuss the
ideas they acquire from media with each other. They
may debated and challenge the values and ideologies
that the media conveys, hich consequently reduces
the power of the text.
- Different ways of
consuming media texts:
primary media (films
shown in cinemas
demand close and
concentrated attention
from the aduience)
secondary media (radio
and TV programming
provide a backround
for an audience who
are often doing
something else at the
same time) tertiary
media (media texts
consumed by
audiences who are
almost unaware of
their own engagement
with the media)
- Audiences have become increasingly important given new
media (interent, Ipods, Satelite TV, DVD's and user-demand
TV, such as Tivo and Sky). These technologies increase
audience control, and allow audiences and producersto
become more fluid.
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