Chapter 6: Learning

Nota:

• Learning is any relatively durable change in behavior, attitude, of knowledge that is due to experience.  Not to be confused with a reflex which is without control and peripheral. 

1. Classical Conditioning

   Nota:

   • Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus
   1. 4 Key steps
      1. UCS

         Nota:

         • The Unconditioned Stimulus: consistently produces a particular automatic response usually controlled by the nervous system.  In Pavlov's = Dog food
      2. UCR

         Nota:

         • The Unconditioned Response: Response that occurs when the UCS is presented.  A reflex.  In Pavlov's Dog: Salivation Always identical to CR
      3. CS

         Nota:

         • Stimulus is neutral at start of conditioning process. Through association with UCS, the CS triggers the (U)CR.  In Pavlov's Dog: sound of bell.   
      4. CR

         Nota:

         • Learned response produced by CS. Occurs after association. Similair to UCR but triggered by CR alone.  In Pavlov's Dog: Salivation at bell. 
   2. Pavlov

      Nota:

      • Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist who paved the way for behavioral psychology. In his initial experiments, Pavlov presented a stimulus and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. Pavlov called the stimulus the conditioned (or conditional) stimulus (CS) because its effects depend on its association with food. 
   3. Involuntary
   4. Little Albert

      Nota:

      • The Little Albert experiment was a case study showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans. The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization.
   5. Processes
      1. Stimuli - Response

         Nota:

         • A stimuli is something that causes a reaction. A Response is the reaction to said stimuli  In classical conditioning responses are elicited.  
      2. Classical Acquisition

         Nota:

         • Occurs when CS and UCS are paired gradually resulting in CR. 
      3. Classical Extinction

         Nota:

         • Occurs when CS is repeatedly presented alone until it no longer elicits a CR. 
      4. Spontaneous Recovery

         Nota:

         • the re-appearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the CS. 
      5. Classical Generalization

         Nota:

         • Occurs when a CR is elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS. 
      6. Classical Discrimination

         Nota:

         • When a CR is not elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS. 
2. Operant Conditioning

   Nota:

   • Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences 
   1. Voluntary
   2. Behavioral Programming
      1. Shape

         Nota:

         • Reinforcing behavior to make them closer to goal behavior. 
         1. Positive Reinforcement

            Nota:

            • Rewarding favorable behavior 
            1. Schedules
               1. Variable Ratio

                  Nota:

                  • When using a variable-ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement the delivery of reinforcement will “vary” but must average out at a specific number. Just like a fixed-ratio schedule, a variable-ratio schedule can be any number but must be defined.
               2. Fixed Ratio

                  Nota:

                  • A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement means that reinforcement should be delivered after a constant or “fixed” number of correct responses. For example, a fixed ratio schedule of 2 means reinforcement is delivered after every 2 correct responses.
               3. Fixed Interval

                  Nota:

                  • A fixed-interval schedule means that reinforcement becomes available after a specific period of time. The schedule is abbreviated into “FI” followed by the amount of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes available, e.g. an FI2 would mean reinforcement becomes available after 2 minutes has passed; an FI20 means 20 minutes must pass and so on.
               4. Variable Interval

                  Nota:

                  • The variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement means the time periods that must pass before reinforcement becomes available will “vary” but must average out at a specific time interval. Again the time interval can be any number but must be defined.
         2. Negative reinforcement

            Nota:

            • Relief: removing averse stimulus
      2. Diminish

         Nota:

         • To decrease unwanted behavior through penalty or punishment. 
         1. Punish

            Nota:

            • Active Punishment
         2. Penalty

            Nota:

            • Removal of privilege. 
   3. Processes
      1. Operant Acquisition

         Nota:

         • Occurs when a response gradually increases due to contingent reinforcement. 
      2. Operant Extinction

         Nota:

         • Occurs when responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated.  
      3. Operant Generalization

         Nota:

         • Occurs when responding increases in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discrimination stimulus. 
      4. Operant Discrimination

         Nota:

         • Occurs when responding does not increase in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus.  
3. Observational Learning

   Nota:

   • Behavior learned through observation, thought to be connected to mirror neurons. A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in primate species.
   1. 3 key steps
      1. Retention

         Nota:

         • Remembering what you paid attention to: cooking lesson. 
      2. Attention

         Nota:

         • One's characteristics affect attention: capacity and arousal. 
      3. Reproduction

         Nota:

         • Being able to reproduce what is remembered: driving. 
   2. Motivation
      1. Intrinsic

         Nota:

         • An ambition to motivate self. 
      2. Extrinsic

         Nota:

         • Motivated by external rewards. 
   3. Dis-inhibition

      Nota:

      • Weakening of inhibition through exposure to a model: mob mentality. 
   4. Latent Learning

      Nota:

      • Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.
   5. Modelling

      Nota:

      • A model for which others can observe behavior: BOBO Dolls 
4. Evolutionary Perspectives
   1. Instinctive Drift

      Nota:

      • When an animals inate response interferes with conditioning.  
   2. Taste Aversion

      Nota:

      • Biological and evolutionary response to consuming things that sicken us. 
   3. Phobias

      Nota:

      • Evolutionary to form fears of dangerous activities or animals.