From which sociological perspective does labelling theory derive?

The labelling theory suggests that most people commit deviant and criminal acts, but only some people are caught and stigmatised for it. Which research method confirms this?

Evidence indicates that British people break the law an average of 17 times a year. What offences were reported to be commonly broken?

If most people commit deviant acts of some kind, it is pointless trying to search for differences between so-called deviants and non-deviants. Rather, what should we instead attempt to understand?

In which book did Howard Becker give a very clear and simple illustration of the labelling argument?

What study does Becker draw upon?

What three points does Becker take from Malinowski's study?

Most theories take for granted that once a person has committed a deviant or criminal act, the response to them will be uniform. Which study shows that this is incorrect?

Labelling theory has been criticised for failing to explain the causes of primary deviance - people commit crimes knowing their actions are against the law before being labelled. How does Edwin Lemert respond to this?

The theory also tends to assume that labelling is either arbitrary or based on biases. However, what does this ignore?

Once an individual is labelled as a deviant, various consequences occur. Which sociologist identifies the distinction between primary and secondary deviance?

What is the distinction between primary and secondary deviance?

When a person has been labelled as 'deviant', they eventually come to be seen in this way and to see themselves in this way, with all other qualities becoming irrelevant. How does Becker describe this process?

Labelling can sometimes make deviance worse. What can this process be referred to as?

Sometimes entire groups can be demonised and seen as 'folk devils'. What can this lead to?

Which sociologist developed the concept of moral panics?

The labelling of individuals and/or social groups can have a number of effects. Firstly, what may it produce what?

What is another possible effect of labelling?

Which left realist found strong evidence that labelling could lead to deviancy amplification and the formation of subcultures?

Perhaps the most common criticism of the labelling theory is that it is too deterministic. What is meant by this?

The concept of moral panics has also been criticised. Why?

How do supporters of the concept counter this criticism?

Labelling theorists argue that they have sensitised sociologists to the use of official statistics. What do they mean by this?

The idea of master status led Becker to devise which concept?

What does Becker mean by 'deviant career'?

Once labelling theorists began to look at how social life is negotiable and saw that rule enforcement is no different to any other social activity, where did their attention shift to?

When understanding why rules and laws are made, sociologists typically took one of which two perspectives?

Becker believed that both marxist and functionalist perspectives were incorrect in their explanation of the creation of laws. What did he argue was the true cause of law creation?

How does Becker refer to the people who create and uphold rules?

Labelling theorists argue that laws are a reflection of the activities of people (in particular, moral entrepreneurs) who actively seek to create and enforce laws. Why do they do so?

Give examples of moral entrepreneurs:

What is the most famous example of moral entrepreneurs in action?

How did Becker describe the campaign to outlaw drugs?

A major criticism of this theory is that can be described as having an incoherent theory of power. Why?

Phenomenological approaches to studying deviance are similar to labelling approaches in what way?

How do the two approaches differ?

Aaron Cicourel studied the way in which delinquency was dealt with in two Californian cities, showing a phenomenological approach. What did he find?

What process is taken when deciding whether a person is a delinquent?

What is the term used to refer to ideas about what a typical person from a particular group is like?

Police and probation officers have a 'delinquent typification'. What is it?

Why are the majority of 'delinquents' from a working-class background, according to Cicourel?

The typifications held by police and probation officers tend to guide what?

Cicourel adds that middle-class parents are better at negotiating their children out of trouble than working-class parents are. What impact does parents' ability to negotiate children out of trouble have?

Cicourel's work shows how justice can be negotiated and suggests how important existing mental categories are in the classification of people as 'deviant'. However, What does this approach fail to explain, according to Taylor et al?

Taylor et al question why it is that the police tend to see the typical delinquent as working-class. What do they believe the explanation for this is?

While phenomenology is useful for understanding day-to-day interactions, what is it less useful for understanding?

Becker argues that labelling theory has a clear value position. What is meant by this?

However, which sociologist argues that they don't truly fight for the underdog because they imply explore marginally deviant activities, reinforcing the notion that pimps, prostitutes and the mentally ill are deviant?

Alvin Gouldner also criticises labelling theorists. He claims that they fail to provide any real challenge to the status quo. Rather, what do they do?

Labelling theorists can also be criticised for focusing largely on small-scale interaction. What does this neglect?

Labelling theory assumes that rule-breaking is widespread and generally insignificant. The real harm comes from the subsequent labelling of the rule-breakers. What does this imply?

However, rather than decriminalising acts, we are seeing more and more acts become illegal. What is an alternative possibility to tackle the issue of labelling in relation to deviance?

Which sociologist has distinguished between two types of 'shaming' of so-called deviants?

What is the first form of shaming identified by Braithwaite?

What is the second form of shaming identified by Braithwaite?

However, the idea of reintegrative shaming is probably most applicable to relatively minor acts of deviance. Who would it not be appropriate for?