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Creado por charlottev
hace más de 9 años
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Outline cell theory
State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life
Relative sizes
Formula for magnification
Formula for actual size
Importance of surface area to volume ratio
State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties
Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialised functions by using some of their genes but not others
State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways
Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells
Draw E. colli as a prokaryote cell
Annotate the diagram
Identify structure in electron micrographs of E.Coli
State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission
Draw a Liver cell as a Eukaryote cell
Annotate the diagram
Identify electron micrograph of liver cell
Compare and Contrast Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
State 3 differences between plant and animal cells
Outline two roles of extracellular components
Draw diagram of the structure of membranes
Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes
List the functions of membrane proteins
Define Diffusion
Define Osmosis
Explain passive transport across membranes by simple and facilitated diffusion
Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP active transport across membranes
Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.
Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis.
Outline the stages of the cell cycle including Interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis
State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue
State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts
Describe the events that occur in the four stages of mitosis
Diagram of mitosis
Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei
State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis
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State the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living organisms
State the variety of elements that are needed by any living organism
State one role of each of the elements mentioned
Structure and bonding of water molecules
Outline the thermal, cohesive and solvent properties of water
Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its use in living organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium
Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds
Identify glucose and ribose
List 3 examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose, sucrose and cellulose in plants
Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
Identify fatty acids from diagrams showing their structure
State 3 functions of lipids
Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage
Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosphate
State the names of the four bases in DNA
Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds
Draw an label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA
Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding of the double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by the formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase
Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA
State that DNA is semi-conservative
Compare the structure of RNA and DNA
Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase
Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases
Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation
Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide.
Define enzyme and active site
Explain enzyme substrate specificity
Explain the effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity
Factors affecting enzyme activity
Define denaturation
Explain the use of lactase in the production of lactose-free milk
Define cell respiration
State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP
Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP
Anaerobic respiration
Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyuvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP
Anaerobic vs. aerobic respiration
State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy
State that light from the Sun is composed of a range of wavelengths
State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment
Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll
State that light energy is used to produce ATP and to split water molecules to form oxygen and hydrogen
State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from the photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon molecules to make organic molecules
Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of oxygen or the uptake of carbon dioxide, or indirectly by an increase in biomass
Outline the effect of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis
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State that eukaryotic chromosomes are made of DNA and protein
Define gene
Define allele
Define genome
Define gene mutation
Explain the consequence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the process of transcription and translation using the example of sickle cell anaemia
State that meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei
Define homologous chromosomes
Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells
Explain that non-disjunction can lead to a change in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
State that, in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their structure
State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities
Analyse a human karyotype to determine gender and whether non-disjunction has occurred
Define Genotype
Define Phenotype
Define dominant allele
Define Recessive allele
Define codominant alleles
Define locus
Define homozogous
Define heterozogous
Define Carrier
Define Test Cross
Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid
State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles)
Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles
Explain how sex chromosomes control gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans
State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome
Define sex linkage
Describe the inheritance of colour blindness and haemophilia as examples of sex linkage
State that a human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes
Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles
Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance
Deduce the genotype and phenotype of individuals in pedigree charts
Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA.
State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA can move in an electric field and are separated according to their size
State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling
Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and also in forensic investigation
Analyse DNA profiles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic investigations
Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome
State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal
Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell), restriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase
State two examples of current uses of genetically modified crops or animals
Discuss the potential benefits and potential harmful effects of one example of genetic modification
Define clone
Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells
Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.
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Define species
Define Habitat
Define Population
Define Community
Define Ecosystem
Define Ecology
Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph
Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs
Decribe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms)
Describe what is meant by a food web
Define Trophic Level
Deduce the trophic levels of organisms in a food web and food chain
Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information
State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities
Explain the energy flow in a food chain
tate that energy transformations are never 100% efficient
Explain the reason for the shape of pyramids of energy
Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled
State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients
Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.
Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records
Explain the relationship between the rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect
Outline the precautionary principle
Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems
Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration
Draw and label a graph showing a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.
Explain reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase between these two phases
List three factors that set limits to population increase.
Define Evolution
Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated animals and homologous structures
Continuation of ANSWER
State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support
Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival
State that members of a species show variation
Explain how reproduction promotes variation within a species
Explain how natural selection leads to evolution
Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Outline the binomial system of nomenclature
List the seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa - kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species - using an example from two different kingdoms for each level
Distinguish between the following phyla of plants, using simple external recognition features: bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta
Distinguish between the following phyla of animals, using simple external recognition features: porifera, cnidaria, platyhemlnthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda
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Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential
Explain the need for enzymes in digestion
State the source, substrate, product and optimal pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase
Draw and label a diagram of the human digestive system
Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine
Distinguish between absorption and assimilation
Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of products of digesti
Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the route of blood through the heart
State that coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients
Explain the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood, and opening and closing of valves.
Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline)
Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline)
Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins
State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets
State that the following are transported by blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat
Define pathogen
Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses
Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens
Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissue
Distinguish between antigens and antibodies
Explain antibody production
Outline the effect of HIV on the immune system
Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS
Distinguish between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration
Explain the need for a ventilation system
Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange
Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles.
State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that carry rapid electrical impulses
Draw and label a diagram of the structure of the motor neuron
State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons
Define resting potential and action potential (depolarisation and repolarisation)
Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron
Explain the principles of synaptic transmission
State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood
State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance
Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms
Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering.
Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and α and β cells in the pancreatic islets.
Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes
Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems
Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinising hormone), estrogen and progesterone
Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and the thickening of the endometrium
List three roles of testosterone in males
Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF)
Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF