What determines the order of amino acids in a protein?

How is RNA different to DNA?

Role of mRNA

Describe tRNA

Transcription

What is splicing (only eukaryotic cells) ?

Why can the process of splicing allow up to 12 different proteins

Why does mRNA leave the nucleus via the nuclear pore?

Translation

What allows many identical polypeptides to be built up at one time?

The genetic code is...

What is meant by the code being degenerate?

What is meant by it being universal?

What determines the cell structure and cell processes

What are transcriptional factors?

How does oestrogen act as a transcriptional factor?

What is siRNA?

How does siRNA interfere with translation?

How can changes to the base sequence in DNA arise?

Why can sometimes substitution mutations not change the order of amino acids?

Why do deletions lead to mutations?

Mutagenic agents:

How do mutagenic agents increase the rate of mutations?

What are genetic disorders

What are hereditary mutations?

What is cancer?

What is the role of tumour-suppressor genes?
How can they cause a tumour?

What is the role of proto-oncogenes?
How can they cause a tumour?

What is an oncogene?

How can acquired cancer be prevented?

What are stem cells?

Where are stem cells found?

What are totipotent cells?

Where are stem cells found in plants?

Why can stem cells in plants be used to grown plant organs?
Why cant humans also do this?

How do totipotent cells become specialised?

How can tissue culture be used to grow plants from a totipotent cell?

Why is the growth medium sterile?

What type of stem cells does bone marrow contain?

Where are the potential sources of human stem cells?

What is the disadvantage of using adult stem cells over embryonic?

What are embryonic stem cells?
How are embryo's created?

Ethical issues with using stem cells:

What are the 3 ways DNA fragments can be produced?

What are the 5 processes of making a protein using DNA technology of gene transfer and cloning

Why use reverse transcriptase?

What does reverse transcriptase make?

What is the DNA made in this way called?

How is cDNA made?

What do restriction endonucleases recognise?

What does the restriction endonuclease do when they reach a palindromic sequence

Why do different restriction endonucleases cut at different specific recognition sequences

What does sticky ends allow?

What is PCR used for?

What is needed for PCR

What is a primer, what are they needed for?

Describe the process of the PCR

Remember...

What's the difference between in vivo and in vitro cloning?

Why are sticky ends important?

What happens during stage one of in vivo cloning?

What is recombinant DNA

How is the gene in the vector transferred into the host cell

Which genes are easily identifiable?

How is an anti-biotic resistance gene marker used?

Describe the stages of detecting transformed bacteria

Describe the use of fluorescent markers

Advantages of in vivo

Disadvantages of vivo

Advantages of in vitro (PCR)

Disadvantages of in vitro

Benefits of GM organisms in agriculture

Ethical concerns with GM products in industry

How can genetic engineering benefit people

What part of DNA is used to make a genetic fingerprint?

Why does this lead to a unique fingerprint?

Why is the probability of two people having the same fingerprint very low?

What are the main stages in making a genetic figerprint

How do you extract the DNA?

How is the DNA cut into fragments?

How is PCR used in GF?

What does the length of fragments correspond to?

How are the fragments then separated?

Describe gel electrophoresis

Describe how southern blotting allows you to make a copy of the fingerprint

How can the fragments then be identified?

How is the fingerprint finally developed?

How are the fingerprints compared?

What can genetic fingerprinting be used for?

Why does matching fingerprints at a crime scene not necessarily mean they did the crime?

What can DNA probes be used for?

What are DNA probes?

How is restriction mapping carried out?

What is a partial digest

What is a total digest?

How is the distance between the different recognition sites determined?

What needs to be set up in the 4 test tubes for DNA sequencing

Why is the addition of a normal or terminator nucleotide equally likely?

Key points with sequencing:

What are the modern techniques for sequencing and mapping?

What is a DNA microarray, and how does it work?

How is a probe made?

What is genetic counselling?

Why during genetic counselling would you advise about screening?

What is gene therapy?

What determines the type of gene therapy?

What do you do if dominant?

If it's caused by two recessive allele?

How do you get a new allele inside the cell?

What is somatic cell therapy?

What is germ line therapy?

Disadvantages of gene therapy?

Advantages of gene therapy?

Ethical issues with GT