Physiology Cycle 1 - BLOOD

β-adrenergic receptor is a ligand-gated channels.

Activity of some adrenergic receptors brings fEPSP to the postsynaptic membranes.

Beta-adrenergic receptors initiate transduction resulting with activation of adenylate cyclase.

Activation of beta-adrenergic receptors up-regulates synthesis of cAMP.

They are present in almost all cells, except for erythrocytes.

They are present only on antigen presenting cell.

Their role is to present proteins and activate helper T-lymphocytes

It plays role in defense against intracellular pathogens.

Sodium-calcium-potassium-magnesium

Magnesium-sodium - calcium

Potassium-sodium-calcium-magnesium

Sodium-potassium-calcium-magnesium

D antigen the oligosaccharide bound to the cellular membrane.

D antigen is the most immunogenic (the strongest) component of the system.

All antigens of the Rhesus system are proteins located only on membranes of erythrocytes.

Agglutinins are synthesized in RhD-negative individuals after exposure to RhD-postive
blood.

Rise of liberation of histamine from mast cel

Rise of gluconeogenesis.

Rise of plasma concentration free fatty acids.

Intensification of catecholamine-dependant bronchodilation.

It activates fibrinolysis.

TxA2 activates platelets – it intensifies their degranulation (release of the content of
granules).

It mediates vascular contraction.

It prevents aggregation of platelets.

In facilitated diffusion, membrane carriers enable movement of molecules through the cellular membrane against concentration gradient.

Particular membrane carrier is able to transfer one particular type of molecules soluble in water

Facilitated diffusion characterizes with finite rate of transfer of substance defined as
maximum saturation.

Water molecules pass from the cell of the collecting duct to its lumen through the system of facilitated diffusion called AQP2

Prolonged time of the clotting time test.

Prolonged prothrombin time.

Prolonged time of bleeding time test.

Prolonged time of Rumpel-Leede test.

Na/K ATP-ase exchanges 2 sodium ions for 1 potassium ion. Each such exchange requires two ATP molecules.

Co-transportation of glucose and sodium ions requires previous action of Na/K ATP-ase. Such the mechanism is an example of secondary active transport.

Calcium ions are actively pumped into cellular cytosol by the calcium ATP-ase. This
mechanism maintains higher concentration of calcium in cellular cytosol than in ECF.

Active transport mechanisms are able to move substances against concentration gradient.

5-7 % of all the CO2 is transported physically dissolved in blood.

50 % of CO2 is converted to bicarbonate. Process is catalyzed angiotensin converting enzyme.

All the bicarbonate produced in erythrocytes and exchanged for chloride. It’s called
Hamburger’s phenomenon.

Part of CO2 is reversibly bound to hemoglobin, forming carboxyhemoglobin

Immunoglobulins against antigen D of Rhesus system develop in childhood.

Immediately after birth, the quantity of agglutinins in the plasma of the newborn is almost zero.

Immunoglobulins against antigens ABO blood type system are produced by the fetus before their birth.

Agglutinins in ABO system are produced in effect of immunization against antigens A and B commonly present in environment.

IP3 receptor.

Ryanodine receptor.

Glycine receptors.

GABAA receptors.

Nicotinic receptors.

Autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues of β-subunit of the receptor. β-subunit
phosphorylates other proteins.

Subunits of G protein interact with their appropriate enzymes, activating various second messenger pathways and other effector proteins.

Receptor interacts with G protein to promote a conformational change and the exchange of GDP for GTP.

Binding of the ligand to its native receptor, receptor activates.

Administration of aspirin slows the process of agglutination

Agglutination is in vitro phenomenon resulting from an interaction between the agglutinogen and agglutinin

Gamma globulins of IgM class easily agglutinate erythrocytes in room temperature.

Agglutination is slowed by albumin molecules

It inhibits activity of plasma coagulation factors I and IV.

It activates natural anticoagulant protein of plasma – antithrombin III.

It inhibits activity of activated Stuart factor and thrombin (factors X and II).

It intensifies adhesion and degranulation of platelets.

It intensifies proteolytic degradation of plasminogen.

They migrate in large number into tissues infected by parasites where they release hydrolytic enzymes.

They release heparin, histamine as well as small quantities of bradykinin and serotonin.

They belong to the adaptive immune system. They are not able to phagocyte.

They aggregate in tissues where allergic reactions occur (peribronchial tissue in people with asthma).

They exhibit chemotaxis.

Decline of the concentration 2,3 BPG.

Rise of pCO¬2

Anemia.

High body temperature

Rise of pH.

It is a part of innate immune response.

It activates complement cascade.

It is an enzyme that performs bacterial lysis.

It is present in plasmocytes.

It produces contraction of cells of the deferent duct.

It up-regulates synthesis IP3 in smooth muscle cells of the uterus.

It is responsible for milk ejection due to contraction of myoepithelial cells.

It has galactopoetic activity – it stimulates production of milk

Thrombin dependant. factor are factors l, ll, X & Xll

Thrombin is a proteolytic enzyme catalyzing conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin.

Vitamin K is necessary in process of post-translatory modification of prothrombin in liver

Exposition of thrombin to fibrin degradation products accelerate coagulation.


Decline of the temperature.

Rise of 2,3 BPG.

Impulses from carotid bodies.

Rise of pH.

Hypercapnia (rise of pCO2).


It inhibits activity of plasma coagulation factors I and IV.

It activates natural anticoagulant protein of plasma antithrombin III.

It inhibits activity of activated Stuart factor and thrombin (factors X and II)

It intensifies adhesion and degranulation of platelets.

It increase water reabsorption from the collecting duct via AQP2 up-regulated after hormone -binds to VP1 receptor.

In smooth musculature of vessels, it up-regulates synthesis of IP3 in smooth muscle cells, eliciting contraction.

Its plasma level rises in effect of decreasing osmotic pressure of blood and cerebrospinal fluid.

Decompression of baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and aortic arch increases liberation of that hormone.

Activates Thirst complex

In facilitated diffusion, membrane carriers enable movement of molecules through the cellular membrane against concentration gradient.

Particular membrane carrier is able to transfer one particular type of molecules soluble in water.

Water molecules pass from the cell of the collecting duct to its lumen through the system of facilitated diffusion called AQP2.

Facilitated diffusion characterizes with finite rate of transfer of substance defined as maximum saturation.

It is a part of innate immune response.

It activates complement cascade.

It is an enzyme of saliva binding iron necessary for proliferation of microbs.

It is an enzyme of saliva reducing Fe2+ to Fe3+.


IP3 receptor.

Nicotinic receptors.

Ryanodine receptor.

Glycine receptors.

It up-regulates liberation of histamine from mast cells.

It intensifies gluconeogenesis in liver.

It down-regulates number of lymphocytes and eosinophils.

It intensifies catecholamine-dependent broncho-constriction.

It increases GFR.


Action of glucocorticoids (cortisol) are rise of plasma conc. of free fatty acids

Sodium-potassium-calcium- magnesium

Magnesium-calcium-potassium-sodium

Potassium-sodium-calcium- magnesium

Sodium- calcium - potassium - magnesium

Ratio of agglutinins of ABO in plasma of blood rises throughout childhood.

Agglutinins in ABO system are produced in effect of immunization against antigens A and B, being simple and common antigens.


Immunoglobulins against antigens ABO blood type system are produced by the fetus before their birth.

Immunoglobulins against antigen D of Rhesus system develop in childhood.

Agglutinins are present in adult blood plasma

G-protein coupled receptors hydrolyses GTP, transferred from G-protein to the binding site of the receptor.

Muscarinic receptor is an example of G-protein coupled receptor.

All adrenergic receptors belong to family of G-protein coupled receptors.

G-protein coupled receptors are metabotropic, they initiate formation of second messengers: cAMP or IP3.


Administration of heparin slows the process of agglutination.

Agglutination is in vitro phenomenon, in vivo process continues, engaging mechanism of destruction of erythrocytes

Administration of isotonic solution of NaCl can facilitate IgG-dependent agglutination of
erythrocytes

Gamma globulins of IgG class easily agglutinate erythrocytes in room temperature.


Prolonged time in the clotting time test.

Prolonged prothrombin time.

Prolonged time of bleeding time test.

Prolonged time of Rumpel-Leede test.

Prolongerd APTT

It activates fibrinolysis.

TxA2 activates platelets & it intensifies their degranulation (release of the content of granules).

It prevents aggregation of platelets.

It mediates vascular contraction.

Na/K ATP-ase exchanges 2 sodium ions for 1 potassium ion. Each such exchange requires two ATP molecules.

Co-transportation of glucose and sodium ions requires previous action of Na/K ATP-ase. Such the mechanism is an example of secondary active transport.

Calcium ions are actively pumped into cellular cytosol by the calcium ATP-ase. This mechanism maintains higher concentration of calcium in cellular cytosol than in ECF.

Active transport mechanisms are able to move substances against concentration gradient.

GABAb receptor is an example of metabotropic receptor

Tyrosine kinase receptors are metabotropic receptor able to autophosphorylates after binding their ligands

Some adrenergic receptors are tyrosine kinase receptors

Muscarinic receptors are coupled to phospholipase C & adenylyl cyclase

Binding of insulin to G protein of the insulin receptor initiates process of activation of adenylyl cyclase

Extracellular ligands bind to G-protein coupled receptors which in turn activate particular G protein

Inhibitory G protein (Gi protein) is coupled to carbonic anhydrase of some cells

The G-protein activates a cascade of signaling events that finally results in a change in cell function

Ryanodine receptor

Rhodopsin receptor

PTH receptor

Nicotine receptor

IP3 receptor

Dopamine decreases liberation of from APG in mechanism of negative feedback

Liberation of corticoliberin (CRH) from APG is stimulated by corticotropin (ACTH)

TSH is liberated from APG. TSH binds its metatropic receptor of the membrane of the thyroid cell

GnRH (gonadoliberin) from hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary cells to secrete FSH and LH

Prolactin is produced by supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus and liberated by the anterior pituitary

it mediates vasoconstriction

It stimulates secretion of aldosterone from adrenal cortex

It decreases reabsorption of sodium ions in kidneys

It increases heart rate

It is a product of partial proteolysis of plasma protein angiotensinogen, process initiated by renin.

It binds to the ligand-gated sodium channel of smooth muscle cells of the uterus

It is responsible for milk ejection due to contraction of myoepithelial cells

It has galactopoietic activity -it stimulates production of milk

It produses contraction of the cells in the deferent duct

It up-regulates synth of IP3 in SMC of the uterus

It produces contraction of the uterus

Reduced volume of ECF and hypoperfusion of the kidney

Increased arterial pressure

Decreased load of distal tubular fluid (NaCl) in area of the macula densa (of the distal tubule

Increased volume of ECF (hypervolemina)

Extracellular ligand such as glycine

Change of the electrical potential of the cellular membrane

Mechanical deformation of the cell (ex. Organ of corti)

Second messenger such as IP3

PTH increases conc. of Ca2+ in plasma blood.

PTH up-regulates mobilisation of Ca2+ ions from bones.

PTH increases activity of la-hydroxylase of 25OH D3 in kidneys

Thyroid hormones decrease plasma concentration of calcium

Growth hormone exerts hypercalcemic effect

PTH decreases activity of 1alpha-hydroxylase of vitamin 25-OHD3 in kidney

Calcitonin & glucocorticoids decrease plasma level of Ca2+

Tetany is a symptom of hypercalcemia

Is a symptom of neuromuscular hyperexcitability

Can be produced by respiratory alkalosis (by hyperventilation)

Is caused by Low phosphate levels

Tetany can be prod by low plasma levels of Mg2+

5% solution of glucose

0.3 % NaCl

Distilled water

0,6% saline​

Benzene, ether & other organic solvents hemolyse RBC’s

Temp. above 60C

Rise of pH

Rise pO2 ​

Rise in body temp

Rise in pCO2

EPO is produced by interstitial cells in peritubular capillary bed of kidneys

Adenosine and androgens inhibit secretion of EPO

Hypoxia (low partial pressure of O2) in kidney is the main stimulus for EPO release

EPO increases the number of erythropoietin sensitive committed stem cells in the bone marrow that are converted by red blood cell precursors

Is a cholesterol

Is a glycoprotein

Synthesised in the liver

Synthesised in the kidneys

10% of CO2 is converted to bicarbonate. Conversion is spontaneous and performed in plasma of blood

5-7% of all the CO2 is transported physically dissolved in blood

Part of CO2 is reversibly bound to hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin

carbaminohemoglobin is an example of reduced hemoglobin of red-brown colour

CO2 can be found as carbaminians & carbanomoHb in the blood

Most of CO2 is converted to HCO3- by carbonic anhydrase of RBC

They migrate in large number into tissues infected by parasites where they release hydrolytic enzymes

They aggregate in tissues when allergic reactions occur, (peribronchial tissue in people with asthma)

They release heparin, histamine as well as small quantities of bradykinin and serotonin

They exhibit chemotaxis

Administration of heparin slows the process agglutination

Agglutination is in vitro phenomenon resulting from an interaction between the agglutinogen and agglutinin

Agglutination results from an interaction between the platelet’s GP IIb/IIIa and vascular collagen

Gamma globulins of IgM class are able to produce immediate agglutination in room temperature

Blood type AB individuals have enzyme transferase that catalyses placement of N-acetylgalactosamine onto H-Ag.

Blood type AB individuals have enzyme transferase that catalyses placement of D-galactose onto H-Ag.

AB is the most common blood type

Blood type AB individuals have enzyme transferase that catalyses placement of fucose forming H-Ag.

AB has no antigens

Agglutination of Anti-D Antibody gives Rhesus -

Agglutination by anti-A Antibody, but not Anti-B Antibody gives the blood type A

No agglutination of Anti-D ab, gives Rhesus -

Agglutinins of A-B-O are produced in adulthood

All Ag of the rhesus system are proteins located on membranes of RBC’s.

Agglutination of both Anti-B & Anti-A ab, give blood type AB

No Agglutination of either Anti-A or Anti-B Ab give blood type O

There are 4 blood types

Ag are proteins located only on membranes of RBC

5% solution of glucose is isotonic will hemolyse RBC

IgG against D-Ag administered to RhD-neg mother after delivery of RhD-pos child, will not hemolyse maternal RBC’s

Hemolysis by hypotonic saline solutions start at 0,45%

Hypertonic solutions hemolyse RBC's

solution stains RBC

solution shrinks RBC

used in hemocytermeter dilutes blood

hemolyse RBC's

stains organelles of WBC

solution stains RBC

solution shrinks RBC

solution dilute blood

stains organelles of WBC

Hemolyse RBC's

Presenting on the water soluble antigen

Complement have chemotaxis of macrophages & neutrophils

Complements promotes agglutination of invading microbes

Complement have opsonising abilities

degranulation of the eosinophils and monocytes

Particular membrane carrier is able to transfer one particular type of molecules soluble in water.

Facilitated diffusion characterises with infinite rate of transfer of substance defined as maximum saturation.

Simple diffusion - its rate is directly proportionate to the surface area & directly proportionate to the molecular size & thickness of the membrane

Secondary active transport uses potential energy in conc. gradient of some ions created by energy liberated from ATP, such as Na+

Simple diffusion depends on molecules ability to dissolve in lipids

Secondary active transport can transfer co-transported molecules even against conc. gradient.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (SIP) derived from RBC membrane is a chemoattractant for HSC from bone marrow.

High % of RDW indicates anisocytosis of RBC

D-Ag is the most Ag (strongest) component of the Rh system

ESR decreases with conc of plasma globulins

ICF is 20% of TBW

TBW is 60% of body mass

ICF main cation is K+

ECF main cation is Mg2+

maintenance of proper function of neurons & myocytes

maintenance of function of cell-memb. (Transport)

Increase blood volume

Factor 4 in blood coagulation

B-cells mediate humeral immunity

B-cells mediate cellular immunity

B-cells work in effect of antigenic stimulation, they form plasma cells which secrete immunoglobulins

B-cells have MHC-2 present on their membranes

IgG is a memory immunoglobulin

IgG binds C1 complex of complement to Ag-IgG complex, initiating classical pathway

IgG has only 2 Ag-binding sites

IgG can be found in tears & saliva

1, 3, 2, 4,

2, 4, 3, 1

1, 4, 3, 2

3, 4, 2, 1

Part of CO2 is reversibly bound to Hb, forming carbamino-Hb

Ag’s are found in various tissues in addition to blood

Blood type A has a N-acetylgalactosaminyl transferase catalysing its attachment to H-Ag

RBC have MHC-1

Its duration is inversely proportional to the number of platelets

it does not depend on concentration and activity of plasma factors of secondary hemostasis

it is prolonged in people treated with heparin

it tests processes of intrinsic pathway of coagulation

75%

0%

50%

25%

All muscarinic receptors are serpentine G-coupled receptors.

Some of them are ligand-gated ionic channels.

Muscarinic receptors modify activity of adenylyl cyclase of phospholipase C.

Acetylcholine is an antagonist of all muscarinic receptors.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

2, 3, 5, 4, 1

1, 2, 5, 3, 4

4, 5, 1, 3, 2

Glycine receptor is an example of chemically-gated channel for Cl- ion

Smooth muscle cells can contract being mechanically stretched. Mediated by stretch-gated channels.

Action potential of excitable cells is usually provoked by outflow of anions through ligand-gated channels

Action potential of excitable cells in usually evoked by entrance of cations through electrically gated channels. (Na+ & K+)

Specific Heat of water is low. Because of this reason water is excellent heat conductor

Water is an excellent solvent because of its polar molecule

Water easily passes across cellular membrane via non-gated channels for cations

Adipose tissue is least hydrated tissue

it is a ratio of volume of all erythrocyte to volume of whole blood

It is proportionate to packed cell volume (PCV, Hematocrit)

Proportionate to plasma concentration of globulin

It should not exceed 15mm/h in healthy adults. Is higher in infectious diseases & cancers

It can easily produce agglutination of erythrocytes in room temperature

It can cross blood placenta barrier

Has 10 binding-sites

it’s a secretory immunoglobulin

All muscarinic receptors are g-protein coupled receptors​.

Some of them are ionotropic receptors of postsynaptic membrane of autonomic ganglia (+ CSN)

Activation of muscarinic receptors increases activity of adenylyl cyclase

Some of cholinergic receptors are tyrosine kinase

Only 2 types; N-cholinergic & Muscarinic

PTH receptor

IP3 receptor

IGF receptor​

Adrenergic receptor (Epinephrine)

it is a ligand-gated sodium channel

Activity of this receptor brings IPSP to postsynaptic membrane of neuromuscular junction

channel for small cations and anions. blocked by nicotine

2 molecules of a natural agonist are bound to alpha-subunits of receptor

Volume of plasma is improper and equals 10 liters, possible reason is overhydration or hypervolemia

Volume of plasma is proper and equals 3.2-3,5 liters. Water homeostasis is maintained

Volume of extracellular fluid is proper and equals 10 liters. Water homeostasis is maintained

Volume of extracellular is improper and equals 10 liters. The possible reason is dehydration

carboxyhemoglobin is a reduced form

Methb is an oxidised form

Blood carries 97% O2

Blood carries 97% CO2

depends on factor 11-12a, Kallikrein

depends on release of HMWK

depends on factor 3-12

depends on vascular wall

needs calcium ions

hyperglycemia

hypoglycemia

stress and sleep (REM)

physical exercise

They have gene/genes coding for the sequence amino acids of fucosyl-transferase

have no antigens on membranes of erythrocytes

Both anti-A and anti-B immunoglobulins are synthesized after exposition to those antigens

Both anti-A and anti-B hemagglutinins are present in their plasma since their birth

Anemia

Hypobilirubinemia

death

edema

Cooling (decreasing of temp) of in vitro preparation

Administration of Ig against human IgG (Coombs test)

Enzymatic modification of molecules of IgG immunoglobulins

Activation of complement system performed by complexes antigen immunoglobulins IgM/IgG

Macrophages

Thrombocytes (platelets)

Hematopoietic stem cells

Erythrocytes​

MCV is an erythrocyte index expressing average volume of erythrocytes

RDW (RBC distribution width) is quantitative measure of MCV

Conc. of hemoglobin in blood of healthy adult women ranges 12-16 g/dL

Standard erythrocyte due to its size + shape is not able to pass via capillaries which diameter is lower than 10 micrometer

Prolonged in case of low plasma concentration of fibrinogen (Factor 1

Depends on processes of intrinsic pathway of coagulation

Depends on platelets count

Depends on state of vascular wall

They can be activated by heparin. substrates for thrombin

Post-translatory modification of molecules of prothrombin factor 2 & 10 in liver, depends on Vit K

Factor 2, 7, 9, 10, Protein C & S are Vit. K dep.

Activity is inhibited by inhibitors of cyclooxygenase

They are proteolytic enzymes (serine-proteases)

Inhibited by coumarin-derivatives such as dikumarol + warfarin

begins with liberation of tissue thromboplastin (tissue factor (3))

begins with exposure of collagen

Requires calcium ions​ & ​PL

Requires factor 12 for full activation of hemostatic process

muscarinic receptor

nicotinic receptor

glycine receptor

GABAa receptor

Voltage gated Cl- channel

Ligand gated Cl- channel

Activation leads to IPSP

Activation leads to EPSP

Factor 2

Factor 5, 8, 13

Fibrinogen (factor 1)

high molecular weight kininogen (HmWK) -

is prolonged in treatment with antivitamin K (+ diseases of liver)

depends on processes of extrinsic pathway

depends on processes of intrinsic pathway of coagulation

depends on platelets count (number of platelets)

N-Cholinergic receptor

B-Adrenergic receptor

Acetylcholine receptor

Folds of cardiac membrane

Depend on equilibrium between plasma coagulation proteins & blood vessel

Tested by clotting time and APTT

Tested by bleeding time

Prolonged in individuals treated with inhibitors of cyclooxygenases (aspirin)

Plasma coagulation factors II, VII, IX, X, C-protein, S protein

Pasma coagulation factors I, V, VIII, XIII

HMWK, prekallikrein

Plasma coagulation factors XI, XII

Activation of plasma coagulation factors X, II and I.

Contraction of the damaged vessel

Adhesion, activation, aggregation, granulation of platelets

Agglutination and coagulation of platelets

After natural invasion of a pathogen and development of the response

Vaccination with separated antigens of microbes

Parenteral administration of ready-made immunoglobulins

Passage of maternal immunoglobulins via placenta, with milk or colostrum

Prolonged in people treated with heparin

Tests Intrinsic pathway & common pathway

Depends on the vascular wall

Depends on nr. of platelets