Motion of condylar joint and example
uniaxial and femorotibial joint
uniaxial and elbow joint
biaxial and elbow joint
multiaxial and shoulder/hip joint
multiaxial and stifle joint
Label 1-7
1. compact bone 2. periosteum 3. fibrous layer 4. synovial membrane 5. articular cartilage 6. meniscus 7. joint cavity
1. compact bone 2. periosteum 3. meniscus 4. synovial membrane 5. articular cartilage 6. fibrous layer 7. joint cavity
1. compact bone 2. periosteum 3. fibrous layer 4. joint cavity 5. articular cartilage 6. meniscus 7. Synovial membrane
1. compact bone 2. periosteum 3. fibrous layer 4. synovial membrane 5. meniscus 6. articular cartilage 7. joint cavity
1. compact bone 2. periosteum 3. fibrous layer 4. plasma membrane 5. articular cartilage 6. meniscus 7. joint cavity
The mature neutrophil in mammalian blood smear can be distinguished from other cells by the presence of at least one very distinctive feature unique to this cell type. Which one of the following features best fits that description?
Its relatively small cell size
The presence of most lobulated nucleus
The presence of granules in its cytoplasm.
The absence of granules in its cytoplasm.
The eccentric location of the nucleus within the cell.
The mature erythrocyte in a mammalian blood smear can be easily distinguished from all other cells by the presence of one of the most distinctive features unique to this cell type. Which one of the following features best fits this description?
The absence of a nucleus.
The presence of a lobulated nucleus
Basophilic staining
The presence of granules.
By very small numbers of this cell type in the blood smear
Which one of the following five histological features best characterizes the loose connective tissue?
Lack of much ground substance
Abundance of collagen fibres
Abundance of ground substance
Abundance of elastic fibres
Abundance of reticular fibres
Which one of the following five features best characterizes the stratified squamous epithelium?
Cells in all layers are squamous in shape and size.
Only cells in deeper layers are squamous in shape and size.
Cells in basal layers are cuboidal.
Only cells in superficial layers are squamous in shape and size.
Cells in basal layers are columnar.
Some animals in a herd of cattle may suffer from myophosphorylase deficiency. Which of the following five laboratory tests would best confirm your diagnosis?
histochemical test myophosphorylase activity
Haematoxylin & Eosin stain
Electron microscopic analysis
in situ hybridisation for myophosphorylase enzyme
immunohistochemical test for myophosphorylase protein
Which of the following correctly explains the mechanism by which a change in intracellular calcium concentration enables muscle contraction in skeletal muscle?
Calcium enters the fibre via T tubules and binds to troponin C
Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum induces a conformational change in the tropomyosin-troponin complex
Calcium activates the ATPase enzyme on the myosin head
Calcium is taken up into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by an ATPase pump and then binds to the ryanodine receptor which activates actin
Cell membrane depolarisation activates a sodium –calcium exchanger which induces the power stroke by enhancing metabolism of ADP
Which of the following is a correct definition of a motor unit?
A motor neurone and the muscle fibres it innervates
All muscle fibres of the same fibre type
Muscle fibres within a single fascicle
A sarcomere
A single muscle fibre
Which of the following statements below concerning these two muscles is correct, assuming they are both of equal volume ?
Muscle A contracts at a slower rate than muscle B
Muscle B can generate a higher amount of force than muscle A.
Muscle A can generate a higher amount of force than muscle B.
Muscles such as A tend to be associated with long elastic energy storing tendons
Muscle B is more powerful than muscle A
Complete the following sentence with the best match from below. “The mechanism by which horses protract their limbs…..”
Involves the brachiocephalicus muscle
Involves muscles that can contract to produce high amounts of muscle power
Uses elastic energy storage during stance in order to increase the shortening rate of the muscle- tendon unit during swing
Uses elastic energy storage to ensure limb protraction does not require large amounts of energy
Differs from that of other fast cursors
The fascicles that form the hierarchical structure of tendon and ligaments are composed mainly of
Endotenon
Proteoglycans
Collagen type I
Crimp pattern
Collagen type III
The graph below shows a typical stress-strain relationship for a tendon loaded to failure. The area under the curve (shown by vertical lines) represents
Heat loss with loading
Heat gain with loading
Stiffness of the tissue
Energy to failure of the tissue
Energy produced in total
In which layer of the epidermis are melanocyte cell bodies usually present in pigmented skin?
S. corneum
s. basale
S. lucidum
s. granulosum
s. spinosum
Which statement best describes the sebaceous gland?
Cells exhibit holocrine secretion and gland opens on to hair follicle
Cells exhibit merocrine secretion and gland opens on to skin surface
Cells exhibit apocrine secretion and gland opens on to skin surface
Cells exhibit merocrine secretion and gland opens on to hair follicle
Cells exhibit holocrine excretion and gland opens on to skin surface
Which of the following best describes changes in chondrocyte behaviour during the endochondral ossification process?
Resting, maturation, proliferation, hypertrophy and death
Resting, proliferation, maturation, hypertrophy and death
Resting, hypertrophy, proliferation, maturation and death
Resting, proliferation, hypertrophy, maturation and death
Resting, maturation, hypertrophy, proliferation and death
Which of the following best describes the relative abundance of these components in fresh articular cartilage?
Water > type II collagen > proteoglycan > hyaluronan
Water > proteoglycan > type II collagen > hyaluronan
Type II collagen > water > proteoglycan > hyaluronan
Proteoglycan > water > type II collagen > hyaluronan
Hyaluronan > water > proteoglycan > type II collagen
The predominant collagen fibre type in hyaline cartilage and bone are, respectively:
III and II
II and III
I and II
II and I
Which component of hyaline cartilage is responsible for retaining the large quantities of water? Water Collagens Proteoglycans Chondrocytes Other proteins
Collagen
Chondrocytes
Proteoglycan
Other
None of the above
A neurone:
has the capacity of self – replication by mitotic cell division
has Nissl substance distributed uniformly throughout the cell body
always presents multiple dendrites, which are of a branched pattern
always presents one single axone, which is branched in tree-like fashion termination
has a single axone process which may measure up to a metre or more in length
Which of the following are not correctly paired in terms of structure and function?
Neurilemmal cell/myelination of axone processes in peripheral nervous system
Astrocyte/blood-brain barrier
Satellite cell/lining of cavities (ventricles) of brain
Oligodendrocyte/myelination of axone processes in central nervous system
Microglia/phagocytosis
A synapse:
occurs between one neurone and another neurone or multiple neurones and always results in excitation of these
involves a synaptic delay of approximately 0.5 – 1.0 milliseconds
occurs between one neurone and muscle tissue and can only result in excitation of the muscle tissue
is always mediated by acetylcholine
involves a partial fusion of cell membranes
A ganglion:
can occur in CNS or PNS
is always a collection of cell bodies of pseudounipolar neurones
is always a collection of cell bodies of sensory (afferent) neurones
is always a site of synapse
may be large enough to see at naked-eye level
The navicular bone:
is otherwise termed the proximal sesamoid bone
lies within the deep digital flexor tendon
articulates with both the middle and distal phalanges at the distal interphalangeal joint
is palpable at the bulbs of the heel
is attached proximally to the distal divisions of the suspensory ligament
A ”low palmar digital nerve block” in the forelimb:
blocks nerve fibres derived from only the median nerve.
desensitises ALL structures within the hoof
is performed midway between the fetlock joint and the coronary band
involves blocking the medial and lateral palmar digital nerves
is a “4 point” block
Coactivation is the stimulation of lower motoneurons by the upper motor neurons resulting into.
Activation of gamma motoneurons to extrafusal fibres
Activation of alpha motoneurons to intrafusal fibres
Activation of both alpha and gamma motoneurons to extrafusal fibres and intrafusal fibres respectively.
Activation on gamma motoneurons causing the muscle spindles to relax.
In crossed-extensor reflex sensory inputs are relayed to the spinal cord and to the interneurons. The interneurons respond by sending inhibitory and facilitatory motor response:
causing the extensor muscles in the affected limb to relax and flexor muscles to contract while both extensor and flexor muscles in the contralateral side relax.
causing the extensor muscles in the affected limb (ispilateral) to relax and flexor muscles to contract while extensor muscles in contralateral side relax and flexor muscles contract.
causing the extensor muscles in the affected limb to relax and flexor muscles to contract while both extensor and flexor muscles in the contralateral side to contract.
causing the extensor muscles in the affected limb (ispilateral) to relax and flexor muscles to contract while extensor muscles in contralateral side contract and flexor muscles to relax.
Motion of hinge joint and example
multiaxial and intercarpal joint
multtaxial and shoulder joint
Motion of ball and socket joint and example
biaxial and radiocarpal joint
Motion of plane joint and example
uniaxial and atlantoaxial joint
Motion of elipsoidal joint and example
biaxial and distal interphalangeal joint
Motion of pivot joint and example
Motion of saddle joint and example
Define the joint cavity structure
A plate of fibrocartilage
space unique to synovial joint
inner lining of fibrous layer
A structure found in only elastic cartilage
A structure found in only friborus cartilage
The synovial membrane is highly vascularised
What is the meniscus
plate of elastic cartilage
sesamoid bone
plate of fibrocartilage
phagocytic cells found in bone
a ligament
What does the meniscus partially or fully divide
a joint cavity
a tendon at its insertion site
blood vessels and bone
articular cartiulage
What is the fibrous layer in joints
a layer of bone
white/yellow elastic fibrous part of joint capsule which attaches to the periosteum
a layer of cartilage
substance made up of type 3 collagen
What is the periosteum structurally?
form of hyaline cartilage
a segment of primary osteon
the extracellular matrix of bone
fibrous covering around bone
What best describes the function of the periosteum?
Articulation surface between joints
Bone growth, repair, nutrition, ligament/tendon attachment
a structure to allow endochondral ossification
a reservoir for osteoblast cells
What is the major constituent of tendon?
water
type 2 collagen
type 1 collagen
proteoglycans
hyaluronic acid
The types of cartilaginous joints
synchondrosis and symphysis
sutures, syndesmoses and gomphosis
sutures, syndesmoses, symphysis and gomphosis
symphysis and syndesmoses
synchondrosis and gomphosis
Which one of these is not typically present in synovial fluid?
glycoproteins
surface active phospholids
Type A mononuclear leukocytes
Glucose and electrolytes
Platelets
The types of dense fibrous joints
sutures and synchondrosis
Gomphosis, synchondrosis and symphysis
Gomphosis, synchondrosis , syndesmoses and symphysis
What cells produce synovial fluid
type A fibroblasts
chondrocytes
type B fibroblasts
osteoblasts
erythrocytes
How many chondrocytes are found in lacunae
1
5
2-4 (usually in pairs)
6
none
Define Wolff's law
bone will arrange randomly
bone only arranges in places it is needed
Describe remodelling
bone resorption by osteoclasts followed by deposition of osteoid by osteoblasts
only osteoblast depositon
only osteoclast resorption
bone resorption by osteoblasts followed by deposition of osteoid by osteoclasts
Describe modelling
the degradation of bone
a process to arrange collagen firbres
the growth of bone and change in bone shape due to bone deposition and or resporption
osteoblast and osteoclast activity to repair fatigue damage but no change in bone shape
What does intramembranous ossification form
flat bones and skulls
bones with articulations
cartilage
mesenchyme
what best describes the process of intramembranous ossification
direct replacement of mesenchyme with bone
the formation of new haversion systems containing blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves
the generation of bone by osteoblast cells
only occurs to repair fatigue damage
What do primary and secondary osteons form
new haversion systems containing blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves
bone
blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves
articulations
what cells are involved in primary osteons
osteoclasts and osteoblasts
osteoclasts, osteoblasts and chondrocytes
osteoclasts
where does primary osteons form
surface of bone generating smooth channels
fibrocartilage
pre-existing bone from inside
surface of hyaline cartilage
What cells are involved in secondary osteons
where does secondary osteons take place
surface of bone and smooth
blood vessels
What shape are osteoblasts and where are they present
simple cells with bone extracellular matrix
multinuclear cells on surface of bone
squamous cells on surface of bone
cuboidal cells on the surface of bone
Function of osteoblasts
secrete osteoid and signal osteoclasts for resorption/secretion balance
resorb bone matrix by secreting HCl and proteases
cell body in lacunae which detect microdamage and attract osteoclasts
Shape of osteoclasts and where they are present
simple cells within bone extracellular matrix
multinuclear cells bone extracellular matrix
Function of osteoclasts
Function of osteocytes
What best describe tendons functional organisation of collagen
crimp structure
chain structure
elongated fibers running parrallel
random arrangement
Where are tenocytes located?
blood plasma
elongated in chains between collage fibres
adipose tissue
CNS
PNS
Collagen synthesis involves?
triple helix of polypeptide chains translated as procollagen and cleaved into collagen
double helix of polypeptide chains translated as procollagen and cleaved into collagen
triple helix of polypeptide chains translated as collagen
procollagen and glycosylated into collagen
Work=?
force x time
force x distance and power x time
distance/ force
power x distance
Power=?
work / time
force x distance
time x force
distance x work
What do short fibers at an angle increase
physiological cross sectional area
tension
strength
power
Best description for large moment arms
low force to lift larger loads with small motion and lower velocity
large force required to lift larger loads with large motion with high velocity
Best description for small moment arms
large force required to lift larger loads with large motion and high velocity
lower force required to lift larger loads with small motion and low velocity
The name for muscle cells
muscle fibre
myofibrils
myofilaments
What process involves the formation of syncitical structure formed by union of several embyonic myoblast cells which fuse to form a multinuclear cells
Myogenesis
Muscle cell atrophy
Sarcomere increase
The properties of a cardiac cell
Uninucleated
Branched
Central nuclei
All of the answers
Striated
Which one of these properties would not be attributed to smooth muscle cells
Unicellular
Which one of these properties are not attributed to skeletal muscle cells
Multicellular
Nuclei at periphery
Central nuceli
Multinuclear
What is the excitatory neurotransmitter of skeletal muscle
acetylcholine
somatostatin
GABA
histamine
tryptamine
The muscle cells which are slow oxidative with low myosin ATPase activity, fatigue resistant, high oxidative ability and stain light
Type 1 muscle fibres
Type 2a muscle fibres
Type 2b muscle fibres
The muscle cells which have high myosin ATPase activity, high oxidative and glycolytic capacity
The muscle cells with high myosin ATPase activity, high glycolytic ability, fatigue easily and stain dark
Alpha dystroglycan and integrins are molecules involved with
endomysium to muscle fibre cytoskeleton
epimysium to perimysium
endomysium to perimyium
epimysium to fascia
The innervation ratio of muscles is best described as?
the number of muscle fibres innervated by a single motor unit
the contractile force generated from a singular molar of neurotransmitter
the concentration of neurotransmitter required for contraction
the total number of depolarization of a motor neuron to induce contraction of muscle fibres
In the sarcomere structure where are thick filaments PRIMARILY myosin found
A band
I band
H band
Z line
M line
In the sarcomere structure where are thin filaments primarily actin located
In the sarcomere structure where is ONLY myosin located
Where in the sarcomere is the end region containing alpha actinin
In the sacromere where are the protein filaments which anchor thick filaments during contraction?
Titin is the largest protein in the body. What is its function in muscle contraction?
A molecular spring responsible for the passive elasticity of muscle
Responsible for anchoring thick filaments during muscle contraction
A catabolic enzyme responsible for muscle atrophy
A anabolic enzyme responsible for muscle hypertrophy
Which description best describes the sliding filament theory
shortening of sarcomeres towards origin, Z line distance reduces, strokes of myosin cross bridges pull the thin filament, A band remains the same and H band shortens
lengthening of sarcomeres towards origin, Z line distance reduces, strokes of myosin cross bridges pull the thin filament, A band remains the same and H band shortens
shortening of sarcomeres towards origin, Z line distance reduces, strokes of myosin cross bridges pull the thick filament, A band remains the same and H band shortens
What description best describes the cross bridge cycle?
without ATP the crossbridge is strongly bound to actin, the ATP binds to myosin and crossbridge detaches due to a conformational change, ATP hydrolysed to ADP, the ADP released causing power stroke to occur
with ATP the crossbridge is strongly bound to actin, the ATP disscoiates from myosin and crossbridge detaches due to a conformational change, ATP binds causing power stroke to occur
without ATP the crossbridge is strongly bound to actin, Calcium binds to myosin and crossbridge detaches due to a conformational change, ATP hydrolysed to ADP, the ADP released causing power stroke to occur
What is the Ca2+ concentration required for muscle contraction?
10-6 M
10-9 M
10-7 M
10-6 mM
Where is Ca2+ stored for muscle contraction
sarcoplasmic reticulum
sarcoplasma
T tubules
mitochondria
lysosomes
DHP receptors changing leading to opening of Ryanodine receptors is due to what?
T tubules conducting an action potential affects what receptors
Calcium entering cytoplasm from sarcoplasmic reticulum
Movement of the tropomyosin complex
Osteoblast activity
Ca2+ released into sarcoplasm occurs by...? (pick the most direct cause)
The opening of Ryanodine receptors causes what
T tubules conducting action potentials
tropomyosin complex movement
Satellite cells fusing into muscle fibers
What is the effect of Ca2+ in muscle?
binding to troponin C causing tropomyosin complex to move and expose binding sites on actin
muscle relaxation
DHP receptors change which opens Ryanodine receptors
What is osteoporosis?
Bones becoming brittle and fragile from loss of tissue due to hormonal changes and deficiency of Ca and Vit D
bone becomes dense and susceptible to fracture due to failure in osteoclasts to resorb bone
Monotonic failure of bone
process of fatigue repair in bone
Genetic mutation in CA2 gene can cause
osteopetrosis
osteoporosis
muscle atrophy
muscle dysplasia
Describe osteopetrosis
bones becoming brittle and fragile from loss of tissue due to hormonal changes and deficiency of Ca and Vit D
Montonic failure of bone
Muscle dysplasia
Which muscle fibers will undergo hypertrophy twice as fast
Type 2
Type 1
Muscle size increase by increase of what?
the number of sarcomeres
the number of muscle fibers
the number of satellite cells
increase in the rate of myogenesis
From left to right label the neuron cell type
multipolar, bipolar, pseudo unipolar
bipolar, multipolar, pseudo unipolar
pseudo unipolar, bipolar, multipolar
multipolar, pseudo unipolar, bipolar
The Na/K pump pumps how many Na+ out and K+in
3 Na+ out 2 K+ in
2 Na+ out 3 K+ in
3 Na+ out 3 K+ in
3 Na+ out 1 K+ in
The resting membrane potential value
-70mV
-55mV
+30mV
-75mV
Threshold of depolarisation for Na+ channels to open
Value of depolarisation for K+ channels to open and cause repolarisation
How is hyperpolarisaion of -75mV commonly known as the refractory period restored the the resting membrane potential
action of Na/K pump
passive diffusion of Na and K
naturally overtime
the intake of Calcium ions
The cells responsible for myelination in the peripheral nervous system
Schwann cells
Oligodendrocytes
Satellite cells
Neuroglia
The cells responsible for myelination in the central nervous system
Neuroglial cells
Action potentials only occurring at the nodes of ranvier is known as?
Saltatory conduction
Saltatory convection
Salivatory conduction
Neurogenic conduction
Which one of these is NOT involved with neurotransmitter release?
action potentials reaches axon terminal, voltage gated Ca2+ channels open
Ca2+ binds to sensor proteins in cytoplasm,
Ca2+ protein complex stimulates docking, fusion and exocytosis of neurotransmitter
Lysomome degradation of neurotransmitter granules
The effects of excitatory neurotransmitters
Na+ channels open and depolarise cell
Cl- channels opens and inhibit postsynaptic potential
Activation of Na/K pump
Hyperpolarisation
The effects of inhibitory neurotransmitters
Depolarization of cell membrane
Alpha motor neurons stimulate what
extrafusal fibers the normal muscle fibers
intrafusal fibres the muscle spindles
intrafusal fibers the normal muscle fibers
xtrafusal fibers the muscle spindles
Gamma motor neurons stimulate what
intrafusal fibers the muscle spindles
extrafusal fibers the muscle spindles
What do muscle spindles consist of
intrafusal fibres
nuclear bag
nuclear chain
Primary annulospiral and secondary flower spray sensory neurons serve what?
the intrafusal fibers
the extrfusal fibers
interneurons
Bipolar neurons
What do primary annulospiral sensory neurons respond to and where are they located
respond to onset of strecth and are located centrally
respond to onset of strecth and are located peripherally
respond to onset of flexion and are located centrally
respond to onset of pain and are located centrally
What do secondary flower spray sensory neurons respond to and where are they located
respond to tonic stretch and are located at the poles
respond to tonic stretch and are located at centrally
respond to tonic stretch and are located at the peripherally
respond to pain and are located at the poles
Which one of these describes the golgi tendon reflex?
disynaptic reflex which inhibits alpha motor neurons
monosynaptic reflex which stimulates alpha motor neurons
monosynaptic reflex which stimulates gamma motor neurons
disynaptic reflex which inhibits gamma motor neurons
Which one of these describes the muscle spindle reflex?
Which structure is NOT part of the Triosseal canal?
scapula
coracoid
clavicle
humerus
Hollow bones are known as what
Trabecular bone
pneumatised bone
osteoporotic bone
osteopetrotic bone