A normal infant's tongue nearly fills the oral cavity, and moves primarily in an anterior-posterior direction, which limits the number and type of consonant sounds produced by infants.
Resonance in the three cavities of the oral facial mechanism (articulatory system) is directly essential to the production of consonant sounds.
Laryngeal muscles work to change the mass per unit length of the vocal folds which results in perceived variations in vocal pitch.
Vocal fold vibration, referred to has "voicing" or "phonation" is essential to the production of all vowel and numerous consonant sounds.
The "breath group" which is the number of breaths required to produce a single utterance, is imposed on speech by the rhythm of inspiration and expiration.
The speech purpose of the respiratory system is to produce phonation.
The accurate and audible production of speech sounds is dependent on the precise, simultaneous, coordinated interaction of the respiratory, phonatory (laryngeal), and orofacial (articulatory) systems.
The ability to produce the sounds of "speech" accurately is primarily dependent on the development of cognitive (intellectual) abilities.
"Cooing" is one of the earliest speech behaviors displayed by infants, occurring normally around the age of 2 or 3 months.
It is common for children to experience changes to misarticulate certain fricative sounds such as /s/ and /z/ about the time they are 6 to 7 years old. This is because
They larynx drops from the level of the 3rd vertebra to the level of the 5th vertebra about this time, changing the shape of the vocal tract and temporarily producing a negative impact on consonant production.
Changes in cranial shape alter the structure and shape of the oral and nasal cavities.
The root of the tongue descends into the neck to become the anterior wall of the pharynx, which temporarily restricts the ability of the tongue to reach high, front positions needed to produce fricative sounds.
The angle at which the oral and pharyngeal cavities meet is modified by changes in the depth of the pharynx, which alter resonance and impact fricative production.
Primary dentition is shed at about this time with the incisors, crucial to fricative production, typically being the first teeth affected.
The term "articulation" implies movement. Specifically, the articulators
Modulate resonance in the cavities of the orofacial mechanism (articulatory system).
Constrict airflows and produce identifiable consonant sounds.
Increase subglottal air pressure.
Produce relatively open mouth positions and the cavity resonance associated with vowel sounds.
All of the above.
A talker increases the medial compression force of the vocal folds and simultaneously uses the respiratory system to increase subglottal air pressure. The result is
Decrease in fundamental frequency
Increased vocal loudness
Perceived pitch fluctuation.
Increase in fundamental frequency in a male speaker but decrease in the fundamental frequency of a female speaker.
Reduced vocal intensity.
From the point of view of speech sound production, the single most important purpose of the phonatory mechanism (laryngeal system) is to:
Act to increase thoracic rigidity to aid in strenuous physical activities.
Function as a valve precluding entry of food and liquid into the respiratory system.
Determine an individual's characteristic vocal pitch
Produce phonation (voicing).
In what way might you expect breathing in young children to differ from that of adults.
Actually, there is little significant difference between the speech breathing patterns of young children and those of adults.
Young children's lungs are healthier and more elastic than are those of most adults which contributes to slower breathing rates and longer breath groups.
Because children's lungs are smaller than those of adults, they employ substantially less air pressure, which causes them to speak more quietly but with adult-like duration on a single breath.
Young children have a substantially faster rate of respiration and use greater air pressure than adults do when speaking, which results in relatively short breath groups.
None of the above.
In order to produce speech, the respiratory system is the first charged by air by means of:
The phonatory (laryngeal) system
Precise, coordinated, simultaneous movements of the orofacial (articulatory), phonatory (laryngeal) and respiratory systems
The process of active inspiration.
Aerodynamics.
The breath group.
The component(s) of the orofacial (articulatory) system include:
The lips, tongue, teeth, hard and soft palates, and the oral, nasal and pharyngeal cavities.
The larynx, including the vocal folds and intrinsic laryngeal muscles.
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
All the above acting in precise, simultaneous,coordinated movements.
Speech and language are related in that:
Speech is required to express linguistic concepts and ideas.
Speech and language are interchangeable terms that have essentially synonymous meanings
Speech sounds are one method of encoding and transmitting language.
Answers a and c only.
Which of the following is an example of "cooing"?
The child utters prolonged vowel sounds such as /a/ or /o/.
You observe an infant who says "t-t-t-t-t-t."
An 11-month old refers consistently to the family dog as /nabi/, which nobody in the family can figure out because the dog's name is "Frank."
A new mother reports her 6-month-old called her "mommy" yesterday. She says, "I heard him in his crib calling me, saying 'ma-ma-ma-ma-ma' over and over. I'm SO proud. I'm sure he's gifted."
A 12-month-old says, "bee-da-goo-ba-do" with an upward ending
The incisors are the first of the primary teeth to be shed commonly resulting in misarticulating and changes in fricative sounds such as /s/ and /z/.
The articulators include the oral, nasal, and pharyngeal cavities, which are the primary components responsible for consonant sound production and differentiation.
The vocal folds attach to the cricoid cartilage in the back and thyroid cartilage in the front.
As people age the amount of air they can hold in their lungs typically diminishes, which accounts for the weak vocal quality and shorter breath groups that characterize the speech of elderly people.
The term "speech" refers to the sounds used to convey spoken languages, not to the ideas conveyed by languages themselves.
The speech function to the orofacial mechanism (articulatory system) is to:
Produce phonation (voicing)
Produce consonants
Produce vowels
Both answers b and c.
Adult male average vocal fundamental frequency is 110 Hz while that of an adult females is 225 Hz. This is the result of:
The different in the relative medial compression force
Male to female glottal dimension ratios of approximately 2:1
Significantly shorter average vocal fold length in women compared to that in men.
Gender differences in application of sub glottal air pressure.
Phonation (voicing) is directly produced by:
Sympathetic pulsation of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages.
Arytenoidal centrifugal articulation tendencies.
Glottal variation.
Vibration of the vocal folds.
The respiratory system:
Produces the air flow and pressure that powers speech.
Is primarily composed of the lungs, trachea, bronchi, diaphragm, and intercostal muscles.
Is one of the three essential sub mechanisms (systems) needed to produce accurate, audible speech sounds.
All of the above
Answers b and C only.
The orofacial (articulatory) system is subdivided into the resonators and articulators which act to:
Produce phonation
Supply the air flow and pressure that powers audible speech
Regulate the action of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in speech breathing,
Modify the output of the other speech production systems to produce identifiable vowels and consonants.
Answers a and b only.
Speech development is more complicated than simply learning to produce sounds in isolation. This is because:
There are no words that consist of a single sound (phoneme) in isolation.
The ease or difficulty with which a given sound is produced in a given word is influenced by the sounds that occur around it in a speech stream.
Tiny alterations in speech sounds signal significant changes in meaning and such alterations may occur at any place within a word.
Answers b and c only.
"Babbling" differs from "reduplication babbling" in infants in that:
Babbling includes the use of adult-like intonation patterns while reduplication babbling is simply the repetition of strings of identical consonant sounds.
Reduplication babbling normally occurs before true babbling.
There is no difference; the terms are synonymous.
Babbling involves repetition of single consonant sounds (/k-k-k-k/) while reduplication babbling involves producing syllable strings (/ku-ku-ku-ku/).
The most important speech function of the laryngeal system is the capacity of the vocal folds to close tightly, thus increasing thoracic rigidity,
The terms "speech" and "language" are essentially synonymous an can be used interchangeably.
When a six-month old infant produces long strings of repeated consonant-vowel syllables such as "tatatatata" we say he or she is displaying age appropriate "reduplication babbling".
Normally developing often have trouble learning to produce both the vowel and consonant sounds to their native language.
Distinctive feature therapy would be a reasonable approach for a child who produces numerous speech production errors such as s/z t/d k/g p/b/ f/v.
The "phonological process" model addresses the impact of phonemic environment on misarticulations.
The distinctive feature approach views children's misarticulations as products of infantile pronunciation rules that are simplifications of adult speech patterns.
The traditional phonetic approach can be inefficient and excessively time consuming when applied to situations where children display numerous misarticulating that vary depending on phonemic environments.
The syllable "rime" (or rhyme) consists of the syllable "nucleus" which is always a vowel, and the syllable "coda" which consists of one or more consonants that follow the nucleus.
Manners of production are characterized by such terms as nasals, fricatives, and liquids.
The vowel quadrilateral classifies vowels in terms of the parameters high, low, front, back, voiced and voiceless.
All vowels are produced with relatively open, unconstricted mouth positions.
In English, phonemes are sub classified into vowels and consonants.
Traditionally, goals in therapy for phonological disorders have been prioritized in terms of the order of normal acquisition, the impact on intelligibility and stimulability. .
The articulation approach to therapy focuses on motor production and imitation, shaping, successive approximation and reinforcement are commonly employed techniques.
An example of successive approximation in treatment for a phonological disorder would be to use /l/ which the child can produce, as a starting point and gradually modifying production toward the target sound /r/.
Standardized tests typically provide exhaustive detail about sound production in connected speech, so sampling spontaneous conversational speech is unnecessary.
The terms "diagnosis" and "identification" are related but not synonymous reference to assessing children for possible phonological disorders.
Metaphonological abilities begin to develop in early adolescence and play a key role in older children's development of metalinguistic abilities.
The relationship between dentition and speech production often has been overestimated and minor dental abnormalities rarely cause significant deviations in speech production,
The terms "articulation disorder" and "phonetic disorder" are roughly equivalent and it would be reasonable to use them synonymously.
The term "phonology" refers primarily to the motor movements involved in the production of speech.
The larynx and root of the tongue descent into the neck, deepening the pharynx and altering the angle at which the oral and pharyngeal cavities meet. This process:
Is typically complete around age 4 years.
Significantly increases the range of sounds children can produce
Is directly linked to and is dependent on the development of dentition,
Answers a and b.
The speech function of the orofacial mechanism (articulatory system) is to:
Produce consonants.
The number of syllables produced on a single expiration is termed:
The phonatory cyclic total.
The aerodynamic/myoelastic quotient
Diaphragmatic speech breathing,
The intercostal expiratory figure
A breath group.
In general, the actual process of speaking is DIRECTLY powered by:
Gradual relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles which acts to force air from the lungs
Active inspiration
Contraction of the respiratory muscles
The trachea
Active tensing of the muscles of the rib cage (intercostal muscles) which lift and rotate the ribs upward and outward.
It is not unusual for normally developing children to have some difficulty learning to produce the sounds of their native language primarily because:
Many acquire English as a second language.
Public schools are inadequately funded and the teaching profession as a whole is devalued and disrespected
Poor speech models portrayed on television give many children in inadequate phonemic base even in their native language.
English speech sounds are more difficult to learn than are the phonemic elements of most other languages.
Speech production is complicated by elements of manner, place, voicing, continuance, and surrounding phonemic environment which impact every sound in a speech stream.
***A phonological process treatment approach would most likely be preferred for:
a. An older child with only two, consistent, stimulable misarticulations of late developing sounds
b. A 4- year old child whose speech is largely unintelligible
c. A cild who consistently produces voiced sounds in the environments calling for their voiceless cognate.
d. A child who displays numerous errors along the lines of saying "tefone" for "telephone" and "efunt" for "elephant"
The phonological process approach differs from both traditional phonetics and distinctive feature analysis in that:
a.It was created by Chomsky and Halle
b.It proposes a means for correcting numerous misarticulations simultaneously
c.It has become the single, preferred "treatment of choice" for all types of speech production errors
d.It attempts to account for the effect of phonemic environment.
Answers a and b only
A distinctive feature treatment approach is likely to be preferred to a traditional phonetic approach for use with a child who displays numerous misarticulations and significantly impacted intelligibility. This is because:
The traditional phonetic approach is outmoded and no longer employed.
Parents generally prefer distinctive feature therapy because of widespread positive reviews in the national media.
Distinctive feature therapy simultaneously corrects features common to several misarticulated sounds producing relatively rapid improvements in intelligibility.
The American Speech, Language and Hearing Association has published a position paper recommending distinctive feature therapy in such cases.
***Traditional phonetics views speech (and treats speech disorders) as:
a.Incurable
b. A dynamic process in which sounds interact and change based on the phonemic environment present at a given moment.
c. Consisting of strings of discrete sounds
d. An issue of treating sounds in their natural syllabic environments
Both answers c and d.
Children mostly learn, or have difficulty with, phoneme production in:
Isolation
Discrete bits
Word initial position
Syllable clumps
The syllable nucleus
The place of production for the consonant /t/ in the word "ten" is:
Plosive (stop plosive)
Lingua-alveolar
High, front
Lingua-dental
The production of vowels can be described largely in terms of:
a. six different manners of production
b. Tongue change that modify the shape of cavities
c. resonance characteristics
d. continuance or non continuance
both answers b and c
You observe a child producing a single phoneme in isolation. The phoneme is both voiced and continuant. In producing this phoneme, the chid maintains an open mouth position. It is almost certain that the sound is:
A fricative
A plosive (stop-plosive)
A consonant blend
A nasal
A vowel
The process of coarticulation
a. Is one reason for the existence of allophones
b. Results in phoneme cognates
c. Involves the simultaneous occurrence of production characteristics of two or more phonemes in a speech stream.
Answers a and c only
*** There are several "schemes" for organizing treatment for multiple phonological errors. These include:
a. The traditional phonetic approach
b. The sequential approach
c. The perceptual training method
d. The cyclic approach
Both answers b and d
The "cycles approach" to phonological treatment:
a. Focuses on elimination of phonological processes
b. Employs a rigorous cycle of imitation, shaping, successive approximation, and reinforcement for desired responses.
c. Simultaneously targets a number of phonological processes
d. Teaches target sounds in a cyclic hierarchy of isolation, then in syllables, words phrases, sentences, controlled conversation and spontaneous speech
Both answers a and c
An example of "facilitating context" in treatment for a phonological disorder is:
Using a mirror to facilitate correct placement of the articulators
Facilitating a child's correct production by giving specific direction for correct articulator placement
Training the child to discriminate between the target sound and the error in words produce by the clinical as a means of facilitating more accurate perception.
Using bilabial consonant sounds in CV syllables to facilitate a more forward place of production for a child who substitutues a/ae
all of the above
For the purpose of assessing phonological disorders, standardized tests:
a. May misrepresent a child's skills by comparing them to those of a generic group unlike that of a child's specific language, cultural or dialect background
b. Are helpful for children who's spontaneous speech is unintelligible
c. Provide normative data to which a child's performance can be compared.
Answers c and c only
The meaning of the term "diagnosis" differs from that of "identification" in that
"Identification" only determines whether a child who fails a screening has a disorder; "diagnosis" specifies the specific nature of the disorder
Identification is an initial step used to determine whether diagnostic testing is needed.
"Diagnosis" is the process of employing assessment measures demonstrate whether a child has a disorder; "identification" identifies they type of disorder revealed by the diagnosis
There is no difference, the terms are used interchangeably.
Diagnosis is a professional term for which the label "identification" is used in educational settings.
Providing on tasks such as providing rhymes for stimulus words, identifying beginning and ending sounds or words, breaking down words into syllables and pronouncing words with beginning sounds missing:
a. Are important methods used to identify developmental apraxia of speech.
b. Strongly predict a young child's likelihood of becoming a proficient reader and writer.
c. are used to assess a child' phonemic (phonological) awareness
answers b and c only
Phonological deficits in children:
a. Vary with the type of hearing loss
b. Are significantly influenced by the severity of hearing loss.
c. May be affected by the age at which hearing loss occurs and when intervention begins
The meaning of the term "phonetic disorder" differs from that of a "phonological disorder" in that:
a. It is a broader, more general term that includes the concept of a phonological disorder
b. It refers to disorders caused by and limited to deficiencies in the motor production or neuromotor control systems
c. There is, in fact, no difference in meaning and the terms may be used synonymously.
d. It refers to consonants, vowels, syllables, words, phrases, rhythm and prosody of speech while "phonology" refers to the motor processes that produce speech sounds.
both a and d
The meaning of the term "phonology" includes
Consonants, vowels and syllables
Words and phrases
Rhythm and prosody.
None of the above
