Cognition Definition:

• Cognition is the activity of acquiring, organising and using information to enable adaptive, goal-directed behavior

• Cognition is conceived of as a flow of information through information processing devices that encode, store and retrieve symbolic representations of knowledge.

• Includes mental processes such as learning, memory, attention, language, reasoning, decision making.

• All answers are correct

The results of Shepard and Metzler?s (1971) mental rotation experiment supported the hypothesis that

• Symbolic representations are used to compute the difference in angular rotation between two images.

• An analogue representation can be rotated mentally as if manipulating an actual object in space.

• Complex problem solving relies exclusively on analogue representations.

• All answers are correct

Alan Turing is:

• Turing’s work inspired subsequent innovations in Artificial Intelligence (AI) – a research programme dedicated to developing intelligent machines, modelled on human cognitive processes. The approach to cognition that developed from this work in AI is referred to as Classical Cognition

• Turing Test” The Turing Test equates cognition with disembodied linguistic output. For a machine to pass a strong version of the Turing test its programme would need to encode all of the knowledge a human has acquired over a lifetime and it would need to have a procedure for matching any text input with an appropriate response.

• 20th century mathematician, computer science innovator. Computing became a metaphor for cognitive processes.

• All of these answers are correct

Criticisms of the classical cognitive view include:

• that it provides no account for how symbols are learned. We are not born knowing about all the different kinds of things that exist in the world and the relationships between them

• Our conceptual knowledge must be “grounded” in our bodily interactions with the world and our perceptions – things that cause us to feel (sense and perceive)

• There are only 3 types of mental representations

• All the above

According to a hierarchical view of mental representation, mental representations are encoded:

• in a range of different formats, from analogue to symbolic representations

• as a "language of thought" composed of symbols and syntactic rules for combining them

• as propositinally encoded mental representations which ground higher level representations such as mental images

• at increasingly abstract levels so that the symbolic level is grounded in more basic representations such as mental images

Mental representations form a hierarchy:

• – Sensory-based representations (warm, red)
  – Image-based representations (relations between elements)
  – Propositional/linguistic representations

• Symbolic representations are “grounded” in sensory, perceptual and emotional representations derived from experience with the world

• representations become increasingly independent of the environmental stimuli they represent

• all answers are correct

The natural language sentence "Kevin gave Julia a kiss" would be represented propositionally as:

• Gave(Kevin, kiss, Julia); where "gave" is the argument, and "Kevin", "Julia" and "kiss" form the predicates

• Kevin(gave, Julia, kiss); where "Kevin" is the predicate, and "gave", "Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments.

• The natural language sentence "Kevin gave Julia a kiss" would be represented propositionally as:

• Kiss(Julia, Kevin, gave); where "kiss" is the predicate, and "Julia", "Kevin" and "gave" are the arguments

Classical models of cognition are based on the principle that thinking and reasoning are best understood in terms of:

• Computations carried out over symbolic representations in the mind

• The manipulation of analogue representations in memory

• Real time dynamic processes situated in a physical context

• All of the above

Rodney Brook's robotics projects are based on which of the following principles?

• Adaptive learning in real time based on sensing and a direct representation of the environment

• Building models of cognition from the bottom up

• The retrieval of stored programmes coded as symbolic rules to guide adaptive navigation of the environment

• Both a "Adaptive" and b "Building" above

Which of the following is a reason why the testing effect is beneficial for recall?

• The testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval

• The testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test

• The testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation

• The testing effect ensures that distance effects perception

Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that we can draw from the Johnson & Seifert (1994; Warehouse Fire) experiment?

• Corrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story

• Recall alone is not reposible for the persistent influence of misinformation

• People remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory.

• Even when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory

The true of learning theories

• Simple Learning:
  Association build up gradually over time

• Attentional Learning
  Selective attention allows for some aspects of an event to be associated more strongly than others

• One-Shot/Fast Mapping
  Learning by exclusion, based on what is already known (our expectations)

• They are all true

Loftus & Palmer (1974) demonstrated that asking questions in a suggestive way altered recall of a traffic accident in specific ways. Which of the following statements is true?

• When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

• When asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.

• When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

• When warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.

There are four experimental effects which show us that attention is important for learning
including:

• Trade offs between salience and validity

• Blocking

• Highlighting

• Learning rules of different complexity

• All these answers are correct

A Schema is:

• A schema is a concept or set of ideas or a framework for representing some aspect of the world. Also called frames, mental sets or scripts but can be generally thought of as a concept.

• Schemata influence how you interpret new information and play a large role in determining what you pay attention to when learning (i.e., what is valid for your current understanding of the situation).

• Schema determine what you learn and how you represent that knowledge

• All of the above are correct

The Eriksen Flanker Task demonstrates how:

• Involuntary processing of "flanking" stimuli occurs even when attempting to ignore them

• Stimuli falling within spotlight processed automatically

• Implies some parallel processing of conjunction stimuli

• All answers are correct

The standard model of memory might be able to provide a theory of Bartlett's idea of memory for the details and memory for the gist or schema by assuming that:

• assuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck

• assuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features

• assuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall

• by retrieving memory traces in parallel

In the Standard Model of Memory Attentional bottleneck:

• limits the amount of information that is perceived

• is influenced by the fact that sensory limitations prevent all of the details of a scene or an event from being registered in memory

• Attention, salience, & distraction affect what “gets in” to memory

• All of the above

Sir Frederick Bartlett (1932) Experiment proposed that: Presented British participants with a Native American folk tale called The War of the Ghosts:

• Cultural Bias can inform memory formation

• If not recalled, the details gradually are forgotten until only the gist of what occurred remains

• Manipulating prior knowledge of Native Stories influences the consolidation of the memory schema

• None of the avove

Context and memory involves

• Stimuli are made up of a multitude of different features or dimensions that can be used to guide attention (encoding) and retrieval

• Words and linguistic stimuli

• Memory Traces (more generally)
  Perceptual features, Semantic Meaning, Action

• All these answers are true

Consequence of Selective Attention:

• It would take you some time to shift your attention to the new diagnostic feature if analysing new categories

• Children have a hard time focusing attention on one important thing. Instead, children seem to use all of the features

• You can’t attend to everything at once. If you’re attending to one aspect then you’re not attending to other aspects

• All these answers are correct

Wade, Garry, Read & Lindsay (2002)
"False Memories: People can remember entire scenes that did not happen" proves that:

• All of the answers are true

• Cues are data, the schema is a hypothesis which adapts to explain that data

• Providing a misleading cue affects how the schema is retrieved and altered to explain that detail

• The number of false assertions incorrectly remembered increases across time and prompting

Misinformation in memory:

• All of these answers are true

• Memory is comprised of a few salient details, but is “knitted together” at retrieval by expectation

• Expectation can be altered through asking leading questions or presenting people with misinformation

• Once misinformation is present, its influence is difficult to remove

Lewandowsky, Stritzke, Oberauer & Morales (2005) examined the extent to which people resisted false memories and discounted misinformation by querying memory for and beliefs about war-related events in:

• Because our expectations affect what we remember, it makes particularly susceptible to misinformation

• People are bad discounting incorrect information even when we know it is false

• Unless we have a alternative theory (or schema) which explains the incorrect information

• All these answers are true

Nosofsky (1986) Exemplar theory states:

• Some pairs or collections of attributes tend to co-occur together; other combinations are rare or do not logically occur. The implication of this structure is that we can use knowledge about the category to predict missing information (or infer missing information)

• In Exemplar theory, we do have access to all of the members of the category so we compute the distance between the probe item and all of the members of category A and all of the members of category B. Then we add up the distances and choose the category with the smallest overall distance.
  Attention: Accentuates differences on attended dimensions and Reduces differences on unattended dimensions

• When learning proceeds via feature inference, people are sensitive to the correlations between features. Categorization focuses on attention on diagnostic features. Consequently, people are less sensitive to correlations during categorization

• None of these are correct

Expectation plays a role in memory as:

• Because memory for detail is poor, people can be influenced by questions which suggests specific expectations

• Providing a misleading cue affects how the schema is retrieved and altered to explain that detail

• It helps evolve our schemas

• All of these answers are true

Benefits of categorization

• Provides a means of identification.

• Allows organization of knowledge. We can respond to single items based on category membership rather than as unique items

• Reduces the complexity of the environment

• All these answers are correct

Self-Terminating Serial Search describes

• Stopping the search when target is found

• Constant scanning rate predicts 2:1 slope ratio

• On average, search half the display on target-present trials, all of the display on target-absent trials

• All these answers are true

Shepard, Hovland & Jenkins (1961) study showed that:

• shows that category learning difficulty depends on how many different dimensions are used to define the category

• Selective attention has limited capacity. You can’t attend to everything at once. If you’re attending to one aspect then you’re not attending to other aspects

• Not everyone can access the same features, a vast array of different perceptual features. Not all of these are relevant for categorization

• None of these are correct

Generalization at Multiple Levels

• Typical:
  Instance- The more typical the examples are of the category in the conclusion, the more the conclusion is supported by the premises. Typical instances are more strongly related to the category……and so allow for greater generalization

• Typical Conclusion- Conclusions are supported more by premises that are similar. Generalization is greater to more typical category members

• Size: More specific conclusions are supported more than less specific conclusions.

• Variability: The less similar the premises are among themselves, the more they confirm the conclusion

• All of these answers are correct

Abstract categories refer too

• unobservable attributes (e.g., love, doubt, thought)

• relational concepts (e.g., enemy or barrier)

• rules (e.g., island, uncle, or acceleration)

• All these answers are correct

Chin-Parker and Ross (2002) study showed that:

• Categorization focuses on attention on diagnostic features. When the correlation is diagnostic, people learn to use it

• Factor which determines the influence or weight of a stimulus dimension or attribute on categorization. Categories which require you to pay attention to more dimensions are harder to learn

• Habituation has used to assess simple visual preferences for particular stimuli from iinfancy. There is amazing flexibility in categorization. Adults can acquire exceedingly complex, non-perceptual categories; children cannot

• All of the above are true

Natural stimuli are comprised of features/dimensions, which allows:

• Different animals to have different strengths

• Different light waves to be focused on by different animals

• Selective attention can be used to tune into to specific features which are important for differentiating categories. The structure of that world will depend on the perceptions of the agents in that world.

• None of these are true

Which of the following is NOT a primary benefit of forming categories?

• Categories allow marketing firms to selectively target which products you might like to purchase based on your past purchasing behavior.

• Categories provide a means for identification.

• Categories provide a basis for deciding what constitutes appropriate action

• Categories enable organization and relation of classes of objects and events.

What mechanism does the exemplar theory have which allows it to reduce cognitive complexity

• Selective attention

• Integral stimulus dimensions.

• Separable stimulus dimensions.

• Distance-based generalization.

Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that can be drawn from inductive generalization?

• Generalization is greater to less specific (i.e., larger categories)

• Generalization is greater when the examples are more variable

• Typical instances are more strongly related to the category and allow for greater generalization than atypical instances

• Generalization is greater to other typical category members than to less typical members

Which of the following is NOT a difference between integral and separable stimulus dimensions?

• Separable stimulus dimensions are processed faster than integral dimensions in Garner's (1974) filtration categorization condition.

• Integral stimulus dimensions are primarily found in basic level categories but separable dimensions are found in subordinate level categories

• Separable stimulus dimensions are processed slower than integral dimensions in Garner's (1974) correlated categorization condition.

• Integral stimulus dimensions can not be selectively attended to in isolation, but separable dimensions can.

Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that we can draw from the Johnson & Seifert (1994; Warehouse Fire) experiment?

• Even when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory

• Recall alone is not responsible for the persistent influence of misinformation

• Corrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story

• People remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory.

Simple Learning Theory and Attentional Learning Theory both posit:

• A: Learning involves not only learning what things are associated…
  …but also where to attend

• B: In simple, associative learning models, it’s assumed that it takes time to build up connections between cues and their associates

• C: Expectations provide hypotheses which we use to:
  Explain the thing we’re trying to learn
  Evaluate our experiences (which in turn allow us to update our expectations)

• A and B are correct

The standard model of memory might be able to provide a theory of Bartlett's idea of memory for the details and memory for the gist or schema by assuming that:

• assuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck

• assuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features

• assuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall

• by retrieving memory traces in parallel

ways in which prior knowledge influences our hypotheses include:

• Holmesian Deduction - Once you eliminate the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth

• Judicial Exoneration - If one suspect confesses, then we let the other suspect go

• Inference to the best explanation

  I have some prior beliefs in a hypothesis, H, which predicts that I should observe some data, D.

  If I observe D, then H is supported

• All these answers are correct

Which of the following is a reason why the testing effect is beneficial for recall?

• The testing effect ensures that distance effects perception

• The testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval

• The testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test

• The testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation

Loftus & Palmer (1974) demonstrated that asking questions in a suggestive way altered recall of a traffic accident in specific ways. Which of the following statements is true?

• When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

• When asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.

• When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

• When warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.

In Dunn & Kirsner's (2010) analysis of the Kormoran survivors' interrogation reports, they established whether or not the survivors were lying by:

• by presenting survivors with a sequential line-up

• by presenting each of the survivors with misinformation and determining whether it influenced their recall

• weighting each of the coordinates by how likely that survivor was to know the true coordinate

• determining whether the survivors recall of certain events followed Zipf's law.?

In Shepard and Metzlers's 1971 study they found that:

• Mental images are merely symbolic representations of an object and may not appear the same as they do in real life

• Some of our cognitive processes are carried out using analogue representations

• The time taken to 'manipulate' mental images in our mind takes twice as long as it would to physically manipulate it in real life

• We can manipulate an image in our mind in a different manner to how we may physically manipulate a real object

• The angle at which the object had to be rotated was inversely proportional to the mean response time to 'same' pairs

What are the four principles in ethical research that the NHMRC outlines?

• Fairness, Loyalty, Compassion and Empathy

• Risks, Harm, Discomfort and Inconvenience

• Research Integrity and Merit, Respect, Justice and Beneficence 
   

• Research Integrity, Distributive Justice, Respect and Harm 

Salience – how much does the cue grab your attention all other things being equal?

• In the absence of validity, high salience cues will attract attention

• Low salience cues will not attract attention

• Utilization is like validity but concerns how much people will learn about or use a cue on which to base their response.: high validity increases utility

• All these answers are correct

What are the two elements of the ethical research principle Justice? 

• Human Autonomy and Procedural Distribution

• Voluntary Decision-Making and Informed consent

• Harm and Discomfort

• Distributive Justice and Procedural Justice 

Explanation is Hypothesis Evaluation refers to the idea that:

• Your expectations are hypotheses that you use to evaluate information in the world

• Our Experience is Enhanced through Interaction with Design that is Consistent with Expectations

• a person’s expectations can be described as perceptual, inductive, and reconstructive biases, as they pertain to perception, learning, and memory, respectively. Bias in this sense means merely that the distribution of expected designs is not uniform — some match expectations better than others

• All these answers are true

Which of the following is NOT correct?

• A schema is a concept or set of ideas for representing some aspect of the world

• Schemata are also known as frames, mental sets or scripts

• Having a schema can cause information to be reinterpreted or distorted

• Schemata can be changed when faced with contradictory information

Bayesian models of abductive reasoning include:

• Your updated belief should be proportional to your prior belief times the likelihood of the observed event (i.e., how much did your hypothesis actually predict the event?)
  (Prior Beliefs x Likelihood of Observed Event)

• Bayes’s rule suggests that possible explanations should be combined with the data to update our beliefs in each hypothesis
  Data are our observations
  Not all explanations are created equal because we have different degrees of prior belief

• Occam’s Razor: “The simplest explanation (that fits the observed data) is probably the correct explanation. People prefer explanations that explain more data with a minimal number of assumptions.

• All these answers are true

Fast Mapping refers to:

• Learning based on exclusion

• rapidly developing a graph of similarity relations between objects

• an increase in inhibitory connections between neurons

• a reduction in the action potentials at the stimulated neurons

The blocking and highlighting procedures are evidence that

• Learning involves attention

• Learning is context specific

• Learning is based on changes in a neuron's membrane permeability

• Learning is about how you update your prior beliefs based on data

Which of these describes a property of the Rescorla-Wagner model (simple learning theory)?

• Frequency of co-occurrence an important factor in determining what is learned in the simple learning model

• The difference between the predicted and actual outcomes are an important component of the simple learning model

• The speed of learning is determined by a parameter in the model

• All of these are correct

With conjunction targets

• Target defined by combination of colour and orientation

• RT increases linearly with display size

• Increase in RT is twice as steep for target absent as target present trials

• All these answers are true

Bayes's rule can be phrased as:

• Updated beliefs in a hypothesis should be proportional to our prior belief in that hypothesis multiplied by the likelihood that that hypothesis could have generated the observed event

• once you eliminate the impossible whatever remains however improbable must be the truth

• The simpliest explanation (that fits the observed data) is probably the correct explanation

• None of these answers are true

Learning Involves Attention, meaning:

• In the pursuit of some goal, organisms must overcome initial fascination (attention) to salient but irrelevant attributes

• Organisms must figure out what is relevant for achieving a particular goal

• The nature of selective attention determines the mental representations we form about the world

• All these answers are correct

Problems With FIT

• Pop out sometimes depends on complex object properties, not just simple features

• High-level, not low-level properties predict pop out.

• Inconsistent with idea that pop out only occurs at level of simple features

• All of these answers are correct

Which of the following is not one of the 5 key empirical effects that help us to understand generalisation?

• Selectivity of categorisation

• Typicality of instances

• Typicality of generalisation

• Category size

• Category variability

Herbert Simon proposed:

• A Bounded rationality: Humans reason and choose rationally, but only within the constraints imposed by their limited search
  and computational capacities.

• B Judgment and decision-making often rests on simplifying heuristics instead of extensive algorithmic processing

• CSatisficing: “[U]sing experience to construct an expectation of how good a solution we might reasonably achieve, and halting search as soon as a solution is reached that meets the expectation. Expressed more simply, satisficing is a rule of thumb which says ‘pick the first satisfactory alternative’. It’s likely to be useful when there are a large number of alternatives to compare and the problem is such that determining the optimal choice would necessitate comparing all alternatives.

• D A and C are correct

Actuarial (a.k.a. statistical) prediction: “Based on a regression analysis, non-smokers are expected to live for 80.5 years whereas smokers are expected to live for 66.3 years.” Clinical prediction says:

• All these answers are correct

• Clinical (a.k.a. case) prediction: “Based on intuitions I have developed during interviews with you, I believe you are rehabilitated and should be released from prison.

• Clinical prediction performs very poorly relative to statistical prediction

• Clinical prediction overweights case characteristics and underweights base rates

Two systems of Heuristic thinking INCLUDE:

• A System 1: fast, automatic, non conscious

• B System 2: Reflective, conscious, controlled

• C Question substitution: Instead of seeking the answer to some complex question, seek the answer to an easier question you believe to be related.

• A and B are correct

Improving System 2 of Heuristic thinking intervention:

• Provide rewards to motivate participants to check their intuitive impressions

• Ensure that participants are not simultaneously having to perform other kinds of mental effort.

• Increase metacognitive difficulty

• All these answers are correct

The three general-purpose heuristics are:

• Representativeness heuristic

• Affect heuristic

• Availability heuristic

• None of these are true

Bias within Representative Heuristic include :

• All these answers are true

• The hot hand fallacy

• The Law Of Small Numbers

• Misperceptions of randomness

What can we do about our biases?

• Learn about them as concepts

• we can learn to recognise situations in which mistakes are likely

• easier to notice biases in others than in oneself

• All these answers are true

Is “fast thinking” synonymous with the use of heuristics

• Yes. Heuristics can only be used unconsciously.

• No. Heuristics can also be used consciously.

• Depends on the context

• It's inconclusive

Feature Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade, 1980) describes

• Role of attention is to bind features into perceptual compounds

• Each feature (lines, colours etc.) registered in its own feature map

• Conjunction targets require feature binding, so need focused attention – leads to serial search

• Feature targets don’t require feature binding, don’t need focused attention – leads to parallel search

• All answers are true

The so-called anchoring heuristic proposes:

• when estimating quantities people start with an intuitive reference point (the ‘anchor’) and make adjustments to it

• This was the first study to demonstrate that anchoring worked even when participants believed the anchor to be totally arbitrary

• That people's level of expertise influences the base expectations of their answers

• All these answers are true

The recognition heuristic is:

• If one of two objects is recognized and the other is not, then infer that the recognized object has the higher value.

• Eliciting frequencies rather than probabilities

• Non- anchoring heuristic is the only thing that actually is supported by studies

• All answers are true

Three criticisms of Kahneman’s work

• Kahneman’s biases lack external validity

• Kahneman’s heuristics are vaguely theorized/specified and there has been a lack of formal modelling

• .Kahneman overstates the problems caused by the computational limitations of our brains

• All the above are true

Which of the following statements is correct?

• Attentional Learning describes the method of learning by exclusion, based on what we already know

• Attentional Learning describes how we typically make trade-offs when we draw inferences

• Attentional Learning describes how selective attention allows for some aspects of an event to be associated more strongly than others

• Attentional Learning describes how associations build up over time

Historical origins of attention include:

•  Attentional selection based on simple physical features (location in space, voice, etc.)

•  Meaning requires access to limited capacity channel, only extracted if stimulus is attended

• Brain's ability to self-regulate input from the environment

• All these answers are true

Sustained Attention can be defined as:

• Related to psychological arousal (continuum from drowsy, inattentive to alert, attentive)

• Problem of vigilance: performance declines over a long watch (radar operators, quality control inspectors, etc.)

• All these answers are true

• None of these answers are true

Cherry (1953) demonstrates that:

• Semantic content not analysed (language, meaning)

• Translation is selective (stimuli not all treated equally)

• No memory/detail for unattended message despite changes to it

• All these answers are true

The Stroop effect demonstrates

• Automaticity is a basis for skill acquisition (reading, driving, playing a musical instrument, etc.)

• Criteria for automaticity: Fast, parallel, effortless, doesn't require capacity

• Learned S-R associations

• All these answers are correct

Selection of the Attended Message (follow one message to exclusion of others) is mainly determined by:

• Source localisation in space important cue

• Binaural presentation (both ears receive both messages in the same voice)

• None of these are true

• All these answers are true

Criticism of Cherry (1953) include

• Cherry only looked at what's remembered in referring to aural stimuli

• Confounds perception and memory

• Stimuli may be perceived but then forgotten

• All these answers are true

Evidence for Filter Theory (Broadbent, 1958) Cognitive Theory of Attention

• Filter precedes channel, protects it from overload

• All stimuli stored briefly in short term store (STS): stimuli stay for a second, some selected by filter to pass into LC channel

• Raw acoustic trace, decays quickly if not selected

• Preferred way to recall info is Ear-by-ear recall had more correct stimuli repetition

The Failure of Filter Theory stems from

• A Dear Aunt Jane” experiment (Gray & Wedderburn, 1960)

• B Moray (1959)

• C Filter theory explains simple findings, but can't explain semantic processing of unattended stimuli

• D both B and C are true

Efficient vs. Inefficient Search was proposed by Wolfe because:

• Many tasks show intermediate pattern, don’t provide clear evidence of either serial or parallel search

• parallel and serial functions look like ends of continuum

• No evidence of dichotomous population of search slopes (2 different search types)

• All these answers are correct

Attenuation Model (Treisman, 1961)

• Partially attended stimulus in the LTM is partially activated

• Two radios playing simultaneously, filter turns volumes up or down

• Filter biased by context, message salience

• All answers are correct

Criticism of Early Selection

• Late selection: Differs in where filter is located, after LTM instead of before LTM

• Complexity of filter: Needs to respond to semantic context, distinguish related from unrelated stimuli – simpler alternative?

•  LS theory: All stimuli access LTM, not sufficient for awareness
   ES theory: LTM activation = conscious awareness

• All these answers are true

Late Selection (Norman, 1968) states:

• Bottom-up and top-down selection mechanisms

• Stimuli selection by “pertinence” (relevance to task/behavior)

• Need both kinds of activation to get through filter, otherwise fades away

• All answers are correct

Guided Search Theory (Wolfe, 1989) states:

• Initial parallel stage provides a candidate list of possible targets
  Second serial stage checks candidate list for targets

• Similar targets and distractors lead to large candidate list and inefficient search

• Dissimilar targets and distractors lead to small candidate list and efficient search

• All answers are correct

Evidence for Late Selection

• McKay (1973) Semantic processing on unattended channel: Recognition biased by previous shadowing task

• Von Wright, Anderson & Stenman (1975): Conditioned response/activation based acoustics of words,

• Neither answers are true

• Both answers are true

The difference between Parallel Search For Feature Targets and Conjunction Targets

• Conjuction targets pop out; Feature targets don't

• Conjunction targets don't pop out; Feature targets do

• All these answers are correct

• None of the above are true

 Early Selection Theory and Late Selection Theory are different as:

• All answers are correct

• reduced detection accuracy on unattended channel

•  Filter before LTM

•  Semantic activation on unattended channel in the LST

Early Selection Reply in each theory shows:

•  LS: Semantic activation on unattended channel shown by indirect means

• ES: Doesn't deny weak activation of semantic material on unattended channel. Indirect measures don't show it occurs to the same degree

• Both answers are correct

• Neither answer is correct

A preattentive process:

• A.
  Is a process of which we are unconscious

• B.
  Is a limited capacity process

• C.
  Is a process that runs inside focal attention

• D.
  Is a process that runs outside of focal attention

Evidence for Serial Search includes:

• Neither of these answers are true

• Both these answers are true

• Seem to need to focus attention on target to detect it – focus attention on each item in turn

• Constant scanning rate predicts linear RT/display size function

Structural and Capacity Theories refer to the ways in which attention can limit performance

• Neither answers are true

•  Both answers are true

•  Capacity (Resource) Theories:  Information processing is mental work
   Work requires activation of neural structure
   Limited capacity to activate structure

•  Structural (Bottleneck) Theories:  Some neural structures can only deal with one stimulus at a time
   Competition produces processing “bottleneck” (filter theory)
   (ES: bottleneck getting into LTM; LS bottleneck getting out)

Pros and Cons of Capacity Theory (With Hindsight)

• All answers are true

• Can make capacity theories (mathematically) precise using Signal Detection Theory

• Emphasises divided attention, flexibility of attentional control

•  Value of capacity theory is new experiments it led to

Attentional Orienting can involve:

• bottom-up (something captures attention)

•  Natural environment: Shifts in attention can be top-down (decide to shift attention)

• None of these answers are true

•  Need both kinds of systems to function

The dorsal cortical pathway is thought to process information about:

• A.
  The location of stimuli in space

• B.
  Information about stimulus identity

• C.
  Fine spatial detail

• D.
  Colour and texture

Some visual tasks are:

• Some search targets require attention

• Some search targets seem to “pop out” from the background

• All of the above

• None of the above

Failures of Focused Attention include failing to consider:

• All these answers indicate a failure of theories/knowledge gaps of focussed attention

• Visual search looks at costs of divided (distributed) attention: performance decline with increasing display size is evidence of capacity limitations

• Situations where there is a benefit not to divide attention: avoid processing distractor stimuli

• Failing to factor in Limitations of focused attention and involuntary processing of irrelevant stimuli

Controlled and Automatic Processing Experiment Shiffrin & Schneider (1977):
Search for digit targets in arrays of distractor letters in rapid sequences (or vice versa)
Vary size of target (memory) set: 1-4 items
Vary size of stimulus displays: 1-4 items
Consistent mapping (CM): target and distractor sets were distinct (Performance under CM became automatic with practice (>90%)
Varied mapping (VM): targets on some trials were distractors on others (Subjectively effortless, spontaneous pop-out of targets from text)

• Consistent with the idea that automatic processing is capacity-free, effortless encoding (no need for cognitive resource)

• Subjectively effortless, spontaneous pop-out of targets from text increased automatic processing

• Neither of these answers are true

• Both answers are true

Rock and Gutman (1981) study, where overlapping abstract figures were shown, demonstrated that:

• None of these answers are true

• Objects occupy same region of space, attend to one and rate aesthetic appeal; ignore other

• Memory test: good memory for attended figure, none for unattended figure

• All the answers are true

Tipper (1985) study shows that the Unattended Shape:

• RT to name trumpet is slower if ignored on previous trial

• Means ignored shape must have been perceived to produce effect on subsequent trial (cf. late selection

• attend to one object and ignore another when both occupy same region of space

• All answers are true

Duncan (1984): stimuli differing on four attributes: box size, gap side, line slant, dotted or dashed line  Flash briefly, ask to report two of the attributes (e.g., line slant, gap side). Demonstrates that:

• B More accurate if the two attributes belonged to same object than different objects

• A Evidence that attention operates on whole objects

• C This study disproved these theories

• A and B are correct

Visual Neglect involves:

• Control of attention involves balance of top-down and bottom-up systems

• Reflexive system orients to new stimuli, voluntary system provides sustained attentional focus

• Failure to focus and failure to disengage and reorient both found in clinical cases  Damage to right parietal lobe

• All answers are true

Classical models of cognition are based on the principle that thinking and reasoning are best understood in terms of:

• A Computations carried out over symbolic representations in the mind

• B The manipulation of analogue representations in memory

• C Real time dynamic processes situated in a physical context

• D All of the above

Capacity theories of attention predict that AOCs in dual tasks will show:

• A.
  Tradeoffs only when the capacity demands of both tasks exceed some threshold

• B.
  Performance in both tasks will degrade by about the same amount when they are performed together

• C.
  Tradeoffs that vary smoothly as a function of the capacity allocated to each task

• D.
  A catastrophic decline in performance if the combined capacity demands of the two tasks exceeds the capacity available

Which of the following would be considered a pre-lexical cue for recognising spoken words?

• A.
  Lexical feedback to the phoneme level

• B.
  Lateral inhibitory signals

• C.
  Transitional probabilities between syllables

• D.
  Parallel activation of lexical nodes

Binaural listening tasks are:?

• A.
  Easier than dichotic listening tasks

• B.
  Harder than dichotic listening tasks

• C.
  About as hard as dichotic listening tasks

• D.
  Harder than dichotic listening tasks when the messages are in the same voice but easier when they are in different voices

2 Visual Pathways are:

• Ventral pathway, temporal lobe: form, colour – what pathway

• Dorsal pathway, parietal lobe: direction of motion, spatial location – where pathway  Parietal lobe damage disrupts “where” pathway

• Neither answer is true

• Both answers are true

Neuropsychology of Neglect involves

• Deficit in processing spatial information 
  Not blind, but difficulty in making left side of space accessible to conscious awareness

• Right parietal lobe damage leads to left visual field neglect and vice versa

• Behavioural manifestation: failure to dress left side of body, shave left side of face, etc.

• All answers are correct

Mean RTs in the Posner spatial cuing paradigm are:

• A.
  Shorter for cued stimuli than neutrally-cued stimuli and shorter for neutrally-cued stimuli than miscued stimuli

• B.
  Shorter for cued stimuli than neutrally-cued stimuli and about the same for neutrally-cued and miscued stimuli

• C.
  About the same for cued stimuli and neutrally-cued stimuli and shorter for neutrally-cued stimuli than miscued stimuli

• D.
  About the same for cued stimuli, neutrally-cued stimuli and miscued stimuli

Symptoms of Neglect: Extinction involves:

• Simultaneous identification of two stimuli 
  Unimpaired with only one stimulus

• left visual field deficit with two simultaneous stimuli 
  Perceptual response to one stimulus “extinguishes” response to the other

• Late selection theory: Only one signal can get through filter to consciousness at a time  Extinction: Two competing perceptual representations can't co-exist

• Recognition, identification require activation of neural structures  Damaged hemisphere chronically underactive, stimuli don't provide activation they should  Effects strongest with activity in other hemisphere (invalid cue, competing stimulus)

• All of these answers are correct

In her studies of primate language abilities, Sue Savage-Rumbaugh initially trained two chimps named Austin and Sherman to name objects using abstract symbols called lexigrams. The chimps were rewarded with juice or sweets for correct object-lexigram responses. However, once there were more than two objects to be named the chimps would become confused and were unable to respond accurately. Savage-Rumbaugh concluded from this that:

• D.
  Both B and C above

• C.
  The chimps tended to focus on the rewards associated with the lexigrams rather than on the relationship between the lexigrams and their referents

• B.
  The chimps were relying on the iconic properties of the lexigrams rather than symbolic reference

• A.
  The chimps were able to learn the higher-order relationships between the lexigrams

In perceptual extinction, neglect patients:

• A.
  Show impairment in responding to two weak, near-threshold visual stimuli

• B.
  Show impairment in responding to two strong stimuli

• C.
  Show impairment in responding to a weak stimulus presented in the left visual field

• D.
  Show impairment in responding to a strong stimulus presented in the right visual field

The results of Shepard and Metzler's (1971) mental rotation experiment supported the hypothesis that:

• B.
  An analogue representation can be rotated mentally as if manipulating an actual object in space.

• C.
  Complex problem solving relies exclusively on analogue representations

• D.
  Both b. and c. above

• A.
  Symbolic representations are used to compute the difference in angular rotation between two images.

Rodney Brook's robotics projects are based on which of the following principles?

• A.
  Adaptive learning in real time based on sensing and a direct representation of the environment

• B.
  Building models of cognition from the bottom up

• C.
  The retrieval of stored programmes coded as symbolic rules to guide adaptive navigation of the environment

• D.
  Both a and b above

The co-articulation of phonemes during speech production often results in ambiguous input for the listener. According to the TRACE model of spoken word recognition, the ambiguity caused by the co-articulation of phonemes can be resolved by the mechanism of:

• A.
  Parallel activation

• B.
  Lateral inhibition

• C.
  Lexical feedback

• D.
  Segmentation of the speech stream

The natural language sentence "Kevin gave Julia a kiss" would be represented propositionally as:

• A.
  Gave(Kevin, kiss, Julia); where "gave" is the argument, and "Kevin", "Julia" and "kiss" form the predicates.

• B.
  Kevin(gave, Julia, kiss); where "Kevin" is the predicate, and "gave", "Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments.

• C.
  Gave(Kevin, Kiss, Julia) where "gave" is the predicate, and "Kevin","Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments.

• D.
  Kiss(Julia, Kevin, gave); where "kiss" is the predicate, and "Julia", "Kevin" and "gave" are the arguments.

Balint’s Syndrome is:

• Bilateral lesions in parietal and/or occipital cortex

• Inability to focus on individual objects and to see more than one object at a time (Simultanagnosia) – prone to illusory conjunctions

• Occurs even when objects overlap (Object based!)

• All answers are correct

Object-Based Inhibition of Return involves:

• Inhibition of return: cued spatial location tagged as uninteresting, so slower RT there  Tagging associated with objects, not just they space they occupy

• d

• Neither answer is true

• All answers are correct

Which of the following is evidence for an object-based theory of attention?

• A.
  RTs are shorter when the stimulus is an identifiable perceptual object than when it is not

• B.
  RTs to stimulus objects composed of conjunctions of features are longer than RTs to stimulus objects composed of single features

• C.
  RTs to miscued stimuli are longer when they are part of an uncued perceptual object than when they are part of a cued object

• D.
  RTs to miscued stimuli are longer when they are part of a perceptual object to which attention had been attracted by a peripheral cue presented at a long SOA

The main difference between Broadbent?s filter theory and Treisman?s early selection theory is:

• A.
  In Treisman?s theory, messages can be selected based on their meaning

• B.
  Treisman?s theory predicts that the word ?tap? will be detected more accurately if it occurs on an attended than unattended channel

• C.
  In Treisman?s theory, unattended messages are attenuated rather than blocked

• D.
  In Treisman?s theory, there is no switching cost delay in processing an unattended message

Symbolic Learning: involves:

• • Indexical relationships are crucial to establish the link between a word and its referent

• • Word reference is often supplemented by pairing the sound of the word with an iconic gesture/images

• • Iconic relationships between one instance of a word and another (similarity of one word/past exposure to the word in the past) become important to establish reliable word recognition

• All of these answers are correct

According to the dual systems view advocated by Kahneman (2011), and Evans and Stanovich (2013), which of the following is most likely to be handled by System 2?

• A.
  Counting the number of times a basketball is passed around

• B.
  Matching a character description with an occupation

• C.
  Working out that a person?s face is angry

• D.
  Working out the answer to 2 + 2

In inhibition of return:

• A.
  Mean RTs with peripheral cues and short SOAs are shorter at cued locations than at miscued locations

• B.
  Mean RTs with peripheral cues and short SOAs are longer at cued locations than at miscued locations

• C.
  Mean RTs with peripheral cues and long SOAs are shorter at cued locations than at miscued locations

• D.
  Mean RTs with peripheral cues and long SOAs are longer at cued locations than at miscued locations

According to a hierarchical view of mental representation, mental representations are encoded:

• A.
  in a range of different formats, from analogue to symbolic representations

• B.
  as a "language of thought" composed of symbols and syntactic rules for combining them

• C.
  as propositinally encoded mental representations which ground higher level representations such as mental images

• D.
  at increasingly abstract levels so that the symbolic level is grounded in more basic representations such as mental images

When the Linda problem was presented to participants with 2 options instead of 8, what happened?

• A.
  Participants rated Linda as being slightly less likely to be a bank teller than a bank teller active in the feminist movement

• B.
  Participants rated Linda as being slightly more likely to be a bank teller than a bank teller active in the feminist movement

• C.
  Performance became a great deal better; a much smaller proportion of participants committed the conjunction fallacy than in the 8-option version of the study

• D.
  Results were essentially the same as in the 8-option version of the study

Which of the following is a reason why the testing effect is beneficial for recall?

• A The testing effect ensures that distance effects perception

• B The testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation

• C The testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval

• D The testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test

How does the Dual-Route-Cascaded (DRC) computational model of reading account for the interaction between regularity and frequency observed in visual word recognition tasks?

• A.
  The nodes representing the lexical representations for low frequency words in the lexical route take longer to activate than those representing high frequency words, giving the non-lexical route time to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words.

• B.
  The nodes representing the lexical representations for low frequency words in the non-lexical route take longer to activate than those representing high frequency words, giving the lexical route time to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words.

• C.
  The nodes representing low frequency words in the orthographic lexicon have a lower threshold for activation than those representing high frequency words, giving time for the non-lexical route to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words.

• D.
  Both A and C above

The standard model of memory might be able to provide a theory of Bartlett's idea of memory for the details and memory for the gist or schema by assuming that:

• A assuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck

• B assuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features

• C assuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall

• D by retrieving memory traces in parallel

Peirce’s three modes of reference includes:

• Symbolic- Symbolic reference is based on some formal or agreed upon link (social convention)
  Symbolic reference holds irrespective of: The similarity in physical characteristics between sign or object (iconic). there is nothing about the sound of the word CAT that resembles cattishness any physical or temporal contiguity between sign and object (index)

• • Indexical- Indexical reference is based on a physical or temporal contiguity (correlation, co-occurrence) between a sign and what it signifies:
  • Words can be used indexically when they point directly to their meaning:
  • here, there, I, me, you, this, etc.
  • Nouns and verbs are initially used indexically in the presence of the thing or action to which they refer

• • Iconic- Iconic reference is based on a physical similarity (resemblance) between the sign and what it signifies.
  A portrait or landscape painting relies on the physical similarity between the painting and that which is represented.

• All these answers are correct

Schwarz et al?s study on self-ratings of assertiveness showed that

• A.
  Availability is positively related to ease of processing

• B.
  Availability is positively related to the amount of content recalled

• C.
  If you?re asked to recall assertive behaviors then assertiveness will be more available than if you were asked to recall unassertive behaviours

• D.
  If you?re asked to recall unassertive behaviors then assertiveness will be more available than if you were asked to recall assertive behaviors

Which of the following would be most likely to increase the magnitude of a cognitive bias?

• A.
  Eliciting frequencies instead of probabilities

• B.
  Emphasizing the role of random sampling to participants

• C.
  Getting participants to hold a 7-digit number in their head while doing the task

• D.
  Printing the questionnaire in a hard-to-read font

Loftus & Palmer (1974) demonstrated that asking questions in a suggestive way altered recall of a traffic accident in specific ways. Which of the following statements is true?

• A When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

• B When asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.

• C When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

• D When warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.

Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that we can draw from the Johnson & Seifert (1994; Warehouse Fire) experiment?

• A) People remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory

• b) Corrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story

• (c) Recall alone is not reposible for the persistent influence of misinformation

• (d) Even when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory

The Dual-Route Model of Reading proposed two procedures (routes) for converting print to sound

• The Lexical Route:
  For recognising familiar words rapidly on the basis of a stored lexical orthographic representation for the whole word, the whole spelling holistically
  Used for familiar words (both regular and irregular)
  Necessary for reading irregular words.

• The Non-lexical Route:
  Knowledge of rules for translating letters into sounds
  Grapheme-Phoneme-Conversion rules (GPC rules).
  For “sounding-out” unfamiliar words.
  Phonological Recoding
  Irregular words will be ‘regularised’ (i.e., mispronounced)

• Both answers are correct

• Neither answer are correct

Cuing studies with spatial neglect patients have found:

• A.
  Abnormally long RTs in responding to cued stimuli in the left visual field

• B.
  Abnormally long RTs in responding to miscued stimuli in the left visual field

• C.
  Abnormally long RTs in responding to cued stimuli in the right visual field

• D.
  Abnormally long RTs in responding to miscued stimuli in the right visual field

In Dunn & Kirsner's (2010) analysis of the Kormoran survivors' interrogation reports, they established whether or not the survivors were lying by:

• (1) determining whether the survivors recall of certain events followed Zipf's law.

• (2) weighting each of the coordinates by how likely that survivor was to know the true coordinate

• (3) by presenting each of the survivors with misinformation and determining whether it influenced their recall

• (4) by presenting survivors with a sequential line-up

Moray?s (1970) study of dichotic signal detection found:

• A.
  Selective attention, divided attention with one target, and divided attention with two targets were all about as hard as each other

• B.
  Divided attention was harder than selective attention; divided attention with one target was about as hard as divided attention with two targets

• C.
  Divided attention with one target was harder than selective attention; divided attention with two targets was harder than divided attention with one target

• D.
  Divided attention with one targets was about as hard as selective attention; divided attention with two targets was harder than divided attention with one target

In the attentional blink paradigm:

• A.
  Performance on the first target is worse if it is followed by a second target that must be processed

• B.

  Performance on the second target is worse if the first target is to be ignored

• C.
  Performance on the second target is worse if the first target must be processed

• D.
  Performance on the second target is better if the first target is masked by an immediately following letter to make it harder to see

Word Reading effects

• The Frequency effect
  Frequently encountered words are read more quickly than less frequently encountered words

• The regularity effect
  Irregular words are read more slowly than regular words.

• Frequency x Regularity Interaction
  Regularity affects low frequency words (pint) more than high frequency words

• All of the above

Complete these sentences: In a highlight proceducre, the compound cue A&B is first presented along with reward X. In the following phase, A&B are presented again with reward X, along with A&D which are presnted along with reward Y. ?In a final phase, when B&D are presented together...

• a.
  ...the subject tends to make the response which leads to reward Y indicating that cue D has been highlighted by cue A's previous association with response X.

• b.
  ...the subject tends to be distracted by highlighted information and chooses response Y because it is more salient

• c.
  ...bees waggle to highlight which direction the food source is

• d.
  ...the subject chooses response D because A is highlighted by the previous association with B.

Cherry?s dichotic listening studies suggest that the brain can efficiently select auditory messages by:

• A.
  Their semantic content

• B.
  Their location in space

• C.
  The language in which they are spoken

• D.
  The volume of the speaker?s voice

According to capacity theories of attention, performance limitations in divided attention tasks arise because:

• A.
  There is a limit on the amount of neural structure we can activate to process stimuli

• B.
  Stimuli in divided attention tasks compete for the same neural structures

• C.
  The semantic analysis system imposes a processing bottleneck on performance

• D.
  The sensory analysis system imposes a processing bottleneck on performance

Conditioned galvanic skin response (GSR) studies by Von Wright et al. and others have been interpreted as evidence for a late selection theory of attention. The main finding supporting late selection is

• A.
  A word from a target category that was used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an attended channel

• B.
  A word from a target category that was used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an unattended channel

• C.
  A word from a target category that was not used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an attended channel

• D.
  A word from a target category that was not used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an unattended channel

According to the Dual-Route Model of visual word recognition, the lexical route is used for:

• A.
  The rapid recognition of familar regular and irregular words by the automatic application of grapheme-phoneme conversion rules

• B.
  The rapid recognition of familiar irregular words by the automatic application of grapheme-phoneme conversion rules

• C.
  The rapid recognition of familiar regular words on the basis of a match between the input and a stored lexical orthographic representation

• D.
  The rapid recognition of familiar regular and irregular words?on the basis of a match between the input and a stored lexical orthographic representation

S-SR Study involved:

• • S-SR Wanted to teach Sherman and Austin to communicate symbolically with each other about an object that was not visible.

• – comprehension (receptive language) rather than on production
  – and symbolic reference rather than syntax.

• • Apes can comprehend symbols, but production does not lead spontaneously to comprehension
  • In order to function "representationally”, the symbols learned by apes must become decontextualized and freed for use in novel situation

• All of these answers are true

In negative priming:

• A.
  RTs to a target stimulus are shorter if it was also a target stimulus on a preceding trial

• B.
  RTs to a target stimulus are longer if it was also a target stimulus on a preceding trial

• C.
  ?RTs to a target stimulus are shorter if it was a to-be-ignored stimulus on a preceding trial

• D.
  RTs to a target stimulus are longer if it was a to-be-ignored stimulus on a preceding trial

Criticism of S-SR Chimpanzee Study include:

• – (The chimps) Had to separate the names of things from the contingencies associated with the learning of those names. They needed to be able to separate the names of things from the contingencies associated with learning those names.

• • Teaching the names of objects by association
  • Sherman and Austin had great difficulty with this task once there were two or more lexigrams to choose from.
  • They were paying attention to the rewards that followed the symbol, not to the object-symbol relationship.

• • Subsequently generalised learning to learning names of new objects in a single trial

• Behaviourist Skinner- symbolic communication (mere associative learning) with pidgeons.

A problem with Feature Integration Theory is

• A.
  Sometimes conjunctions of features pop out

• B.
  Some tasks show patterns of search intermediate between serial and parallel search

• C.
  Some search tasks are better described as efficient and inefficient rather than serial and parallel

• D.
  All of the above

Transitional Probabilities can be defined as:

• The likelihood (probability) that any given syllable follows another differs within words, and across word boundaries.

• Infants’ sensitivity to such adjacent transitional probabilities in continuous speech enables them to parse speech.

• Both answers are correct

• Neither answer is correct

The main advantage of studying visual search using letters and digits as stimuli instead of objects in natural scenes is:

• A.
  It is easier to program letters and digits on a computer

• B.
  Skilled readers are familiar with letters and digits, which reduces variability in performance and makes statistical inference easier

• C.
  It allows quantification of the overall processing load

• D.
  It is easier to control the overall contrast of the stimuli, which is known to have an effect on RT

The regularity x frequency interaction within the Dual-Route-Cascaded Model involves:

• The regularity x frequency interaction:
  Low frequency irregular words are processed slower in the lexical route
  due to low frequency words being coded with higher thresholds of activation.
  This gives time for a competing “regularised” pronunciation to be generated by the non-lexical route.

• Neither answer is correct

• Both answers are correct

• High frequency irregular words are recognised fast enough in the lexical route to avoid significant interference from the output of the non-lexical route

The blocking and highlighting procedures are evidence that:

• (a) Learning involves attention

• b) Learning is context specific

• (c) Learning is based on changes in a neuron's membrane permeability

• (d) Learning is about how you update your prior beliefs based on data

Reading a deep alphabetic orthography, like English, orthography requires being able to process three types of words…

• 1). Regular words
  cat, spank, cowboy, apple
  Follow spelling-sound correspondence rules

• 2). Irregular words /Exception words/ inconsistent words
  yacht, sew, colonel, pint, what, head
  Break the usual spelling-sound rules
  Must be recognised on the basis of their unique spelling pattern

• 3). Novel words (nonwords)
  jusk, lelt, dockel, bunset
  Must use the rules, or an analogy to a similar word, to produce a candidate pronunciation

• All answers are correct

The 2:1 slope ratio in mean RT found in conjunction search tasks has been taken as evidence for:

• A.
  A serial exhaustive search

• B.
  A serial self-terminating search

• C.
  A parallel exhaustive search

• D.
  A parallel self-terminating search

Shiffrin and Schneider (1977) found that automaticity was acquired when:

• A.
  There was a consistent mapping between target and distractor categories

• B.
  There was a varied mapping between target and distractor categories

• C.
  People practised the same task for a long time

• D.
  There were rewards for correct detections and punishments for incorrect detections

Prosodic cues to word boundaries can be defined as:

• regularities in the stress-patterns of their native language.
  The stress pattern (metrical rhythm) of a language is one element of the prosody of the language

• This strong–weak (trochaic) pattern is the opposite to that used in languages such as Polish, in which a weak–strong (iambic) pattern predominates

• All languages contain words of both kinds of rhythems , but one pattern typically predominates

• Stress provides a prosodic cue to help infants identify potential words within the speech stream

Vervet monkeys alert the troup to the presence of different kinds of predators using a system of alarm calls. There are three distinct calls; one referencing the presence of a snake, one referencing the presence of a leopard, and one referencing the presence of an eagle. Which of the following observations supports the view that this system of alarm calls is indexical rather than symbolic?

• C.
  The intensity of the calls is associated with the urgency of the threat

• B.
  The calls are produced only in the presence of the associated threat

• A.
  Each call is associated with a specific behavioural response

• D.
  All of the above

Parallel activation of lexical candidates involves:

• A source of ambiguity in speech is caused by the time it takes for spoken words to unfold

• speech is being evaluated and re-evaluated continuously against numerous potential lexical candidates, activated in parallel.

• Both answers are correct

• Neither answer is correct

Fast Mapping refers to:

• a.
  Learning based on exclusion

• b.
  rapidly developing a graph of similarity relations between objects

• c.
  an increase in inhibitory connections between neurons

• d.
  a reduction in the action potentials at the stimulated neurons

Which of these describes a property of the simple learning theory described in the lecture?

• Frequency of co-occurrence an important factor in determining what is learned in the simple learning model

• Generalization based on a single observation determines what is learned

• Judicial exoneration is a good way to describe how the model works

• The model should be preferred because it is simple

Language involves:

• Laughter, facial expressions, tone of voice (prosody) and gestures all provide paralinguistic cues to meaning

• – Syntax
  • rules for combining words into sentences

• – Word meaning
  • symbolic reference

• All of these answers are correct

Why is Symbolic Learning had?

• because what determines the meaning of a symbol is not the probability of co-occurrence with its referent (object or event) in time or space.

• symbolic meaning is a complex function of the relationship that a symbol has to other symbols within a symbolic system

• • Words are defined by their relationship to other words
  • Higher-order correlations between words within a grammar begin to matter more than the co-occurrence of a word and its referent in time or space
  • Words with similar meanings are often used alternatively, not together
  • Words with different meanings tend to be adjacent to one another in sentences.
  • The frequency with which specific word combinations are repeated is extremely low, language is on the fly, don’t use standard combinations.

• All answers are correct

Phonemic Awareness involves:

• This explicit knowledge of the phonemic structure of spoken language is known as phonemic awareness (PA)

• PA can be distinguished from the implicit knowledge that underpins your ability to recognise spoken words that differ by a single phoneme.

• Both answers are correct

• Neither answer are correct

Symbolic reference is distinguished from other modes of reference because it is based on:

• D.
  All of the above

• C.
  A physical similarity between the sign and the thing signified

• B.
  A temporal and/or spatial relationship between the sign and the thing signified

• A.
  A socially defined relationship between the sign and the thing signified

Lateral Inhibition of word recognition involves

• Neither answer is correct

• Both answers are correct

• For example, while hearing "beetle", TRACE will initially build activation for both "beetle" and "beaker".
  However, over time, "beetle" inhibits (suppresses) "beater"

• As activation accumulates in multiple lexical nodes, the nodes compete via lateral inhibitory mechanisms.

The sign languages used by communities of deaf people include gestures that resemble the object or action they refer to. Does this feature of sign languages exclude them from being considered true languages?

• C.
  No, because symbolic reference is defined by the interpretation of the sign within a linguistic system, not by whether individual signs within the system retain aspects of iconicity or indexicality.

• A.
  Yes, because symbolic reference is defined by all signs within the linguistic system being arbitrarily related to their referents rather than being inconic or indexical

• B.
  Yes, because languages must be spoken, not visual-spatial

• D.
  No, because sign languages are better thought of as primitive proto-languages

B.F. Skinner trained two pigeons, Jack and Jill, to perform a sequence of behaviours that gave the appearance of symbol use to convey meaning. Skinner argued that the behavior of his trained pigeons was equivalent to Sherman and Austin's performance on the hidden food task. Which of the following observations speaks against Skinner's conclusion?

• C.
  Sherman and Austin used symbolic lexigrams to communicate

• B.
  Sherman and Austin named the hidden food on the first trial based on their prior learning of naming and requesting

• A.
  Sherman and Austin were highly motivated by food rewards

• D.
  Sherman and Austin were trained on each component of the task in sequence

Word Recognition TRACE model involves:

• The model includes two lexical-level mechanisms for word recognition.
  Lexical feedback
  Lateral inhibition

• It is based on a system of processing units called nodes. Nodes represent elements of information within the system, from the lowest perceptual level of phonetic features, through the phonemic level (for individual speech sounds) and the word level (where nodes represent individual word forms).

• Each kind of node is organised within a separate layer of the system, with the phonetic features, phonemes, and words constituting separate layers of nodes within the network. Each node has a resting level and a threshold for activation. When the input is consistent with one of the nodes, the activation level of the node rises from its resting state towards its threshold. Nodes within this system are highly interconnected and when a given node reaches threshold it may influence other nodes to which it is connected. An active node can both raise the level of activation of nodes that are consistent with it (excitation) and lower the level of activation of nodes that are inconsistent with it (inhibition). The connections between layers are excitatory. Excitatory activation flows upwards (feed-forward) through the layers of the system from the phonetic feature level to the word level. This is referred to as “bottom-up” activation from the perceptual level. Activation can also flow back down through the system from the word level to the phonetic feature level. This is referred to as feedback, or “top-down” activation. In addition to the excitatory connections between layers, there are also inhibitory connections between nodes within each layer. These connections are known as lateral inhibitory connections. Inhibitory connections enable a node to suppress the activation of a competing node.

• All answers are correct

The regularity effect in visual word recognition refers to the finding that:

• A.
  Words with regular spelling-sound correspondences (e.g., MINT) are recognised more quickly in visual word recognition tasks than words with irregular spelling-sound correspondences (e.g., PINT).

• B.
  Words that are similar in spelling to many other words (e.g., CAT) are recognised more slowly in visual word recognition tasks than words that have unusual spelling patterns (e.g., YACHT).

• C.
  Words that are high in written frequency are responded to more quickly in visual word recognition tasks than words that are low in frequency.

• D.
  Words with spellings that are associated with more than one meaning (e.g., BANK) are responded to more slowly in visual word recognition tasks than words whose spellings are associated with only one meaning

Word Recognition involves:

• Word recognition (recognition of the physical forms of words) provides the window through which we access meaning.

• This effortlessness is based on the recognition of individual words in the speech stream, or in print.

• None of these answers are correct

• All these answers are correct

Lexical access refers to:

• The process whereby the memory for a specific word form is located, “opened”, or “activated”

• linguistic modalities that are for perceptual word forms (arbitrary signs) that map onto concepts (semantics

• A mental dictionary

• All these answers are correct

Spoken word recognition involves:

• All answers are correct

• The ability to segment the speech stream despite “noisy”(i.e., imperfect, variable) input and great variability between speakers begins early in development.

• spoken words are perceived as coherent, discrete, events – auditory objects

• Segmenting the speech stream is a non-trivial task

What are emotions?