S/P Psych Lecture/Tute Qs

Change the way that ambiguous behavior is interpreted

Structural consequences
Category differentiation model
(Doise, 1978):
Intergroup differentiation

Outgroup homogeneity

Explanatory consequences
Explaining ingroup and outgroup behaviour
Attribution: explaining other people’s behavior (esp. in relation to causes) via situational behavior and dispositional behavior.

Ingroup favoritism: prejudice

All these answers are correct

Attempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how stable individual differences influence behavior, thought and feeling

Attempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how the situation shapes behavior, thought and feeling

Person vs. situation
E.g., conflict

Broad discipline with fuzzy boundaries: Blend into other areas (biological, cognitive, developmental…)

 The signature moral response (SMR):
 Serious, wrong, bad
 Punishable
 Authority independent (wrong regardless of authority claims)
 General in scope (universal)
 Appeals to harm

The key distinguishing feature of stimulus: harm or welfare (also rights and justice)

 Less serious, less wrong, less bad
 Less punishable
 Authority dependent
 Local in scope
No appeals to harm

None of these answers are correct

Shweder et al. (1997) ) Looked at other concepts/key terms that occurred with morality eg. right and wrong, good and bad, associated concepts in everyday language. Proposed 3 Domains of Ethics

Moral Foundations Theory (Haidt & Graham, 2004, 2007)

 Between-culture differences
 WEIRD – Western. Educated. Industrialized. Rich. Democratic.
 Moralize harm/care and fairness/reciprocity
 NON-WEIRD (Not Western)
 Moralize all five domains, loyalty, authority respect
 Within-culture differences
SocioEconomicStatus differences: SES Increase, community and purity domains decrease.

all of the above are correct

Run experiments to uncover empirical regularities or facts about moral judgment and behaviour with an aim to uncovering psychological mechanisms underlying moral judgment and behavior, with a naturalized approach (no supernatural), base explanations in biology.

not endorsing, just exploring phenomena and the processes involved

response-dependent: what counts as moral is that set of phenomena to which people have ‘moral’ responses

All these answers are correct

Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for reasoning MJ

Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ

 Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
 Both in the moral black box and they often conflict
 What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences
 Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment

Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ, and
Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
 Both in the moral black box and they often conflict
 What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences
 Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment

conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on
and
sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions

sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions
and
conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on

(Reason, reasoning, rationality) vs. (emotion, intuition, gut feeling)

All are correct

D  Individual differences
 Need for cognition: high – central; low – peripheral

C Situational
 Mood: happy – peripheral; sad – central
 Importance to self: important – central; unimportant – peripheral

 B Peripheral (heuristic) route: taken when people are unwilling or unable to think carefully about message content

 A Central (systematic) route: taken when people are motivated and capable of thinking carefully about message content

A and B

C and D

Reasoning and rational processing of MJ

Different ages people will engage with these concepts using different concepts. Young children will use obedience/punishment, individualism and exchange, then social order.
When people see a stimulus, people use different, varied, deliberate, conscious, logical, moral reasoning according to a set of social rules to conjure a judgement
 Stages:
 obedience/punishment,
 individualism/exchange,
 roles,
 social order,
 individual rights,
 universal principles
 Emphasis on consciously accessible rules that were applied at the time of judgment.
 Stimulus – reasoning – judgment

 Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
 Both in the moral black box and they often conflict

All these answers are correct

don’t need rich cultural contexts to engage in categorization

Us vs. them categorization happens under any social conditions

Tajfel et al (1971):
Schoolchildren do a Point allocation task: Klee or Kandinsky paintings- no association b/w preferences and allotted group they were told they belong too, a label. Intergroup discrimination occurred despite random categorization. Mere categorization (based on minimal group conditions) elicited ingroup favoritism
This study's hypothesis were supported

All these answers are correct

This is known as Competition Theory Greene et al. (2001, 2004). 
Each problem pits a deontological option (what is “good” is based on the rule: do not kill innocents) against a utilitarian option (greatest good for greatest number)
 Deontological response driven by gut-reactions, emotion, intuition
 Utilitarian response driven by controlled, effortful reasoning processes

 Dual process model (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
 Both in the moral black box and they often conflict
 What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences
 Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment

Other factors that influence moral judgement beyond emotion and reasoning:
Decision framing (how you word the moral story (e.g., Petrinovich & O’Neill, 1996)

Greene et al (2001) Competition Theory and the revised version are correct

Standardised metric quantifying degree and
direction of linear relationship between two numeric
variables (i.e., X and Y)

As how 1 variable causes another

How two variables can be present in different contexts

None of the above

One of the most frequently used statistics
– Important to be able to interpret it correctly

Fundamental to theory building in psychology – and outside of psychology as well!

It helps determine when 2 variables of interest are associated with each other

All of these answers are correct

arousal and
performance

intensity of
signal and
probability of
detection

frequency of
tap drip and ability
to concentrate

All these are true examples

Homoscedasticity
In statistics, a sequence or a vector of random variables is homoscedastic if all random variables in the sequence or vector have the same finite variance. This is also known as homogeneity of variance

scatterplot of residuals against predicted values to check for
heteroscedasticity.
• Absence of any systematic pattern supports the assumption of
homoscedasticity

None of these answers are correct

Both these answer are correct

To create boundaries/definitions between communities and cultures

To classify parameters such as age and SES

To classify participants in studies

None of these answers are correct: it's used to navigate/orient ourselves in the world, effort minimizing, pressed for time, communicative

The null hypothesis for correlation is:
The correlation in the population is zero.
1 If the probability associated with this null hypothesis is small (p < .05), then we reject the null
hypothesis.

2 So, we infer that the correlation value for the population is NOT zero

3 There is a significant association between the two variables

None of these steps are in order

These steps are in order

every change in the X variable is
accompanied by a corresponding change in the Y variable

With some research questions, correlations of .05 can be large
With others, correlations as high as .6 or .8 can be low

Correlations range from -1 to +1

All these answers are true

• Y = a + bX + e
l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant)
l b is the slope parameter
l e is an error or residual term.
l Errors are assumed to be:
– Independent
– Normally distributed

» Normally distributed with a mean of 0
– Homoscedastic
» Equal error variance for levels of predicted Y

• Y = a + bX + e
l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant)
l b is the slope parameter
l e is an error or residual term.

All of the above are correct

Outgroup compliance is less than ingroup

a group tendency in behaviour, belief etc. These perceptions of what others do or think we should do influence our behavior in powerful ways

Have conformity/rebellious in mind, impact own conformity during a task

None of these answers are true

It compares how much the two variables vary together compared with how much they vary seperately

Extreme
scores or
outliers can
greatly
influence
value of
correlation.

r = Covariability of X / Variability of X and Y Separately

All these answers are true

There is no difference

Y = a + bx + e is observed Y ascore (acual data) whereas Yˆ = a + bx is precicted Y score

Y = a + bx + e is precicted Y score Yˆ = a + bx is observed, actual Y score

They are used in univariate or bivariate data

Those individuals with greater chances of survival and reproductive success (due to the possession of adaptive traits

offspring will tend to resemble their parents (i.e. inherit their traits).Thus certain adaptive traits are selected for.

These adaptive traits increase in frequency in future generations, thus coming to be widespread within a species.

All these answers are true

Individual differences:
Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA): Tendency to submit to established authorities and adhere to social conventions
Social Dominance Orientation (SDO): desire to promote intergroup hierarchies (egalitarianism is bad as promotes equal authority) and for one’s in-groups to dominate their out-groups

Competition
Realistic Conflict Theory (LeVine & Campbell, 1972): intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce (and thus valued) material resources. Intergroup bias goes up when survival is tough.

Intergroup Threat: Integrated Threat Theory (Stephan & Stephan, 1985)
Realistic threat: threats to the material well-being of the ingroup, such as their economic benefits, political power, and health (from another outgroup)
Symbolic threat: threats to the ingroup’s system of values-immigrant rhetoric
Intergroup anxiety: feelings of anxiety people experience during intergroup interactions associated with negative outcomes for the self (embarrassed, rejected, ridiculed)

All these answers are correct

All of these answers are true

If we know two variables are related (correlation) we can use this
knowledge to make predictions about behaviour.

A linear relationship between two variables

Regression model
Y = a + b X + (error)

To keep social order

 Normative influence: going along to fit in/connect/belong (often only public/surface)
 Informational influence: going along to be accurate (often private/deep)

To navigate the world, for surivival

None of these answers are true

Extreme scores are often (but not always) due to chance

If it’s due to chance, it’s extremely unlikely that the other value will also be extreme

Both these are correct

– Tool for understanding the world and developing
psychological theory
– About explaining variability
– About generalising from a set of observations to the
broader population

• Aim is to improve experimental design and
analyses

• Training you to bridge the research and applied
world
– Critically evaluate existing research
– Conduct and report your own research
– Build a more sophisticated understanding of reality,
which can then be applied to helping others

All answers are true

Intercept (a)
Estimated value of Y when X = 0.
May or may not be a meaningful quantity

Slope (b) indicates:
- whether there is a relationship between X and Y
- whether that relationship is positive or negative (cf correlation)
- estimate of expected change in Y when X increases by 1
Slope can be translated into standardised form
convert X and Y into z-scores and then do the regression
standardised regression coefficient (called beta in SPSS.)
compare with correlation coefficient for bivariate data
Can also have confidence intervals for regression coefficients

None of these answers are correct

All of these answers are correct

Attitudes can guide behaviour without much thought

Attitudes can guide behaviour through considered intentions

Attitudes can guide behaviour in relation to self presentation/norms

All answers are true

The F test tells us whether the variance explained is
significantly different from zero.

If the F test is not significant, the regression is worthless. The predictor does not explain the
outcome variable at all.

There is no relationship

The two details are correct

 Based on Hamilton’s rule, one is more likely to perform altruistic act X (with fixed cost C and fixed benefit B) For kin than non-kin

 rB > C
 r=degree of genetic relatedness; B=benefit to recipient; C=cost to helper.

All of these answers are true

None of these answers are true

: altruism for non-kin can evolve as long as such altruism is reciprocated (either at the time or at some later date)

both helper and recipient benefit

Social contract theory (Cosmides & Tooby, 1992) (Detecting cheats)
 Reciprocal altruism can evolve if it is protected from cheaters
 Evolved cheater detection systems: recognition of individuals, memory for interaction histories, communication of one’s values, model others’ values, represent costs and benefits

All answers are true

Attitude Accessibility:
To influence behaviour, the “right” attitude must be accessible.
Those who are low in self-monitoring have more accessible attitudes.
Attitudes can become aware deliberately - reminding people to think about their attitudes.
Self-awareness makes attitudes more accessible.
Attitudes can become accessible automatically.

Attitude Compatibility:
Specific attitudes influence specific behaviours.

Personal Control:
If we believe we can control our behaviour, attitudes have a big influence.
When we believe our behaviour is not under our personal control, attitudes have little influence.

All answers are correct

Social Identity Theory (SIT)
People prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem. Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups).

Self-categorization theory:
Categorize ourselves as group members
Such self-categorization leads to depersonalization, assimilation (behavior) to ingroup norms, and self-stereotyping

Social categorization: the placement of individuals into a class of similar individuals, often based on features such as gender, ethnicity, nationality…Primitives: age, gender, race (contested): we can’t help but categorize people. Other salient groups apply

All of these answers are correct

 Descriptive norm influenced behavior

 Cross-norm inhibition: norm-adherence inhibited or undermined by violations of other norms (break one rule, break many)

None of the above

All of the above

Social categorization can automatically activate information consistent with the ST

Stereotyping: process of viewing an individual in light of a stereotype, draw upon group stereotype to understand individual

expectancies about a social group (probable behaviors, traits, features) can be positive or negative (cf. prejudice- judging negative)

All these answers are correct

People prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem
Our selves are composed of personal (individual) and group-related identities: Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups). See ingroup identity a more positive relative to outgroup identity to boost self-esteem.

Intergroup differentiation ; Within group homogeneity (especially for outgroups)

Cross-race identification bias (Other race effect- they all look/think the same)

All these answers are correct:

surface conformality

Mirror Neuron activity

Perception and behaviour links

All of these answers

Extended contact: knowledge that other ingroup members have outgroup friends can reduce intergroup bias

Intergroup contact:
The more contact one has with an outgroup, the less prejudice one expresses

Individual differences (the good kind): fostering positive individual differences: “building character”

All these answers are correct

Changing categorization: Change the cognitive representation of outgroup members so it is no longer simply us vs. them

Promoting cooperation:

All answers are correct

Organize and guide the processing of self-related information that are part of the individual’s social experience.

Are derived from past experience.

Are cognitive generalizations about the self

None of these things

All of these things

Authority pushes people to do things

 Punishment in learning

 Convergence: Authority pushes people to do things

Cultural norms change overtime, but we are always influenced by norms

people look to others in uncertain circumstance, use other peopl’es information to secure reality

None of these answers are true

 Self-confidence decrease
 Task difficulty increase
 Stereotypes…

 Group cohesion increase
 Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)
 Social support for deviant position decrease

All of these answers are true

None of these answers are true

All these answers are correct

Commitment

Authority

Liking

Reciprocity

All answers are correct

 Naturalistic fallacy

Genetic determinism
 No nurture

Reductionism

B and C are correct

A Three primitives – sex, age, “race”

 B Us vs. them thinking

C Age and sex make sense from ev. perspective, but race does not. Race is not a factor in the EEA

All answers are true

If such patterns are correlated with physical features, these features would come to serve as cues in the coalition detection system (e.g., dress, gait, dialect)

 By-product of alliance/coalition detection

lived in bands and often formed coalitions within bands. Moreover, neighboring bands often came into contact/conflict. These alliances needed to be tracked.

Factors influencing attitude change in the Central route include:  Present participants with weak or strong arguments
 Some participants were highly involved; others not
 argument quality matters

 Factors influencing attitude change in the Peripheral route include:
 Source expertise
 Source attractiveness

Neither of these answers are correct: reverse them

These answers are correct

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Go/No-Go Association Task (GNAT)

Attitudes can also be inferred from observing behaviour.

All answers are correct

Implicit attitudes are thought to reflect more automatic, less controlled evaluations

Explicit attitudes are thought to reflect conscious thoughts and considered reactions to the object.

Explicit attitudes predict controlled behaviour.

Implicit attitudes predict more spontaneous behaviour.

All answers are correct

 Affiliation goal (desire to connect) and attempting to reconnect
 Group membership: ingroup > outgroup
  Group cohesion increase
 Power: powerless > powerful
 Mood: good > bad



 Self-confidence decrease
 Task difficulty increase
 Stereotypes…

 Group cohesion increase
 Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)
 Social support for deviant position decrease

None of these answers

Domain specific

Composed of collection of evolved psychological mechanisms (modules)

All these answers are true

Adaptations

Guttman scales:

Likert scales

Semantic Differentials

All answers are correct

All these answers are true

 Cognitive revolution

Standard Social Science Model (SSSM)
Blank slate written on by experience

Behaviorism

Complexity:
The number of elements in the attitude.

Strength:
Certainty or probability – how strong the attitude is.

Valence:
Evaluation – whether the attitude object is viewed positively or negatively

All answers are correct

Material and social self-seeking involve things, such as proving for our needs, and social things, such as being friendly, curious, and emulating others.

Spiritual self-seeking involves “every impulse towards psychic progress”, including intellectual, moral, and spiritual pursuits in the narrow sense.

All answers are true

Neither answer is true

All these answers are correct

Kin selection

Mate choice

 Morality

Explicit is self aware, reporting

Implicit involves subconscious, unaware, detailed

None of these answers are true

All of these answers are true

 Functions of conformity: informational, normative
 Conformity also communicates something to others: agreeableness

Non-conformity also serves as a signal: uniqueness, independence

Both answers are true

None of these answers are true

Affective component – liking or feelings about the attitude object.

Behavioural component – how we behave toward the attitude object.

Cognitive component – our thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object.

All answers are correct

Self-improvement: Desire to improve a particular aspect of the self. Elicited by circumstances involve past threat or failure

Self-verification: Desire for consistency in self knowledge. Elicited by circumstances which involve failure.

Self-enhancement: Desire to achieve and maintain a positive sense of self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when the particular self-view is important.

Self-assessment: Desire to have accurate information about the self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when knowledge of one’s ability is uncertain.

All answers are true

All these answers are correct

When a potential partner is like one’s ought self, we interpret this as “this person is how I should to be”.

When a potential partner is like one’s ideal self, we interpret this as “this person is how I would like to be”.

When one’s own and a potential partner’s actual selves are similar (or commensurable), we interpret this as “this person is like me”.

 How valid are self-report assessments of personality

 Are traits or situations more useful for predicting behaviour

But much of our personality is highly contextualised, and shared a consensus but not an objective proof

All these answers are true

Due to the Parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972): the sex that invests most in the offspring (usually the female) will be more selective

Ancestors who had an aversion to incest had greater reproductive fitness (produced more viable offspring)

Both answers are true

None of these answers are true

The Ego - aspect of self that actively experiences the world.
The stream of consciousness that gives us our sense of personal identity.
“It is the sense of a sameness perceived by thought and predicated of things thought-about.”

The Me - aspect of self that is the object of attention.

Neither answer is true

Both answers are true

Theory of Reasoned Action, Ajzen specified that attitudes should be assessed by taking the product of two factors

Behavioural Beliefs: Behavioural beliefs are the beliefs about the outcomes associated with the attitude object.

Outcome evaluations: Outcome Evaluations are the evaluations of the outcomes associated with the attitude object.

All answers are correct

Self-reference leads to deeper processing which is superior to semantic processing.

linear trend with self-reference processing requiring longer times

Superiority of “yes” words supports schema – “yes” fit with schema whereas “no” do not

All answers are true

All answers are correct

Promotion and prevention failure along with higher assessment are associated with higher levels of vulnerable narcissism

Assessment – the tendency to assess the self, others, and different options for action.

Locomotion – the tendency to move between state to state.

All answers are true

Form stronger intentions to conform to a persuasive message and are more persuaded by the message (Ceasario et al., 2004).

Feel more guilty about their past behaviour – a negative not positive event (Camancho et al., 2003).

Anticipate more enjoyment from the task

Self-regulation is the tendency to change the
self with respect to some reference value or
goal (may involve maintaining a present state
or striving to achieve a desired future state

Self-regulatory models assume that individuals are motivated to approach desired end-states

Both answers are true

Neither answer is true

Both answers are correct

Neither answer is correct

Suggests that self-enhancement is stronger than self-verification motive.

Consistent with self-enhancement model, there was a preference for diagnostic information for positive central traits.

Regulatory Focus

Regulatory Reference

Regulatory Anticipation

All answers are true

In terms of a prevention-framed goal, success is viewed as the avoidance of an undesired end-state) and failure is experienced when one does not avoid it. 

For a promotion-framed goal, success is experienced as achieving a desired end-state and failure is experienced as a failure to achieve it.

Both answers are true

Neither answer is true

The spiritual self - all things that are not tangible that carry the designation my or mine - attributes or abilities, pleasure and pain. To think about ourselves as thinkers.

The social self - how we are regarded and recognized by others. We have as many social selves as people who recognize us.

The material self - all tangible objects, people, or places that carry the designation my or mine.

All answers are true

Informational

Emotional

Instrumental

All of the above

Commitment – deciding about and maintaining love.

Passion – romance, physical, and sexual attraction.

Intimacy – feeling close, connected, and bonded.

All answers are correct

 Differential reproduction
 Some characteristics will lead to greater survival or reproduction

 Genetic inheritance
 Characteristics must be passed down from parents to offspring through genes.

 Variation
 For evolved biological changes to occur, variation in a characteristic must exist (otherwise there is no source of change).

All of these answers are correct

The ‘Growth Story’
Personal development, or ‘becoming’ as a central theme

Redemption Sequences’
Significant episodes whose form goes from worse to better (overcoming adversity, undergoing a transformation etc)

Both these answers are true

Neither of these answers are true

 1) Resources vary in their availability over time and space

 2) Fitness maximisation is not a ‘one-shot game’
 - long vs. short-term strategies

 3) Trade-offs must be made: Trade-offs are influenced by varying individual and environmental circumstances.
 Thorough exploring increases likelihood of finding high quality resources, but delays reproduction

All answers are correct

goals, and values tend to be related to interdependence in collectivist cultures and with independence in individualistic cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

 e.g., timing and content of social roles varies across culture and social context
 e.g., caregiver role construal… (Friedlmeier et al., 2008)

 e.g., personal narratives draw on the stories and metaphors that are salient in our culture

All of these answers are correct

Shared attitudes suggest mutual attraction. If I like someone and they like the same things as me, I can infer that they will like me too

when we learn that someone has the same attitudes and beliefs as us, it feels good as it suggests we have sound judgment.

Both answers are true

Neither answer is true

Environmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences
 Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied
 Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied

Genetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents

Neither answers are correct

Both answers are correct

Caregiver responsiveness largely determines the quality of attachment relationships.

Working models tend to be stable across the lifecycle

A “deterministic” view of development.

All answers are correct

Affective
Individuals emotions are influenced by and influence their partner’s emotions.

Behavioural
Individual’s behaviour is influenced by and influences their partner’s behaviour.

Cognitive
Thinking about the self and partner as inextricably linked, as part of a whole rather than separate individuals.

All answers are correct

Reciprocity via Rewards:
We like others who reinforce our behaviour (at the beginning of relationships, costs are discounted … but not later on!).

Reciprocity via Good Moods:
We infer liking from our mood states.

Direct reciprocity:
We like others who like us .
Social approval – being positively evaluated is intrinsically rewarding.
Correlations between mutual liking are around .5 (which is substantial).

All answers are true

concerns an individuals particular life circumstances
highly contextualised

Relatively stable goals, interpretations, and strategies, specified in relation to an individual’s particular life circumstances

Motivational, social-cognitive, and developmental adaptations, contextualized in time, place, and/or social role

All of these answers are correct

Frequency-dependent selection: If all your neighbours are pursuing one strategy it may pay to pursue another, explain traits

Environmental heterogeneity (‘niches’)

Antagonistic pleiotropy (fitness trade-offs)

All of these answers are correct

Interpersonal responses

Emotional responses

Responses to achievement settings

All answers are true

 Parenting- Serious problems:
 Causal ambiguity: (e.g., childhood introversion may elicit overprotective parenting)
 Genetic confounding: (e.g., behaviour of the parents and the child may be influenced by common genetics)

 Birth order-Large multinational samples that control for these confounds find no relation between birth order and personality

 Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)
 Behaviour is learned via the examples of others, as well as via direct rewards/punishments. The ‘bobo doll’ study of aggression

All answers are correct

Genetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents

Environmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences
 Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied
 Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied

Neither answer is correct

All answers are correct

The market pricing model in which relationships are organized to a common scale of ratio values such as money.

The equality matching model in which relationships are organized with reference to their degree of balance.

The authority ranking model organizes relationships in asymmetrical terms. Individuals are hierarchically organized with higher-ranked individuals having the authority to organize, dominate etc.

The communal sharing model which organizes relationships in terms of collective belonging or sharing

All of the above

Fiske proposed that relationships based on one model would be rare and that all relationships to some degree would be described by the models.

Close relationships were described more by the communal sharing model than acquaintance relationships

Relationships with close friends were also described by the equality matching model, whereas equality matching and market pricing models described relationships with acquaintances.

All of the above

We like people we meet often.

All answers are correct

Physical proximity is also important.

the sheer frequency of encountering a neutral or positive stimulus enhances its evaluation.

Equity Theory(Walster, Walster, & Berscheid, 1978): According to this model, relationships are perceived to be fair if each persons’ outcomes are proportional to their contributions. Receiving less or more than one contributes results in lower satisfaction, although receiving less is worse than receiving more

Interdependence TheoryThibaut & Kelly (1959): Individuals are motivated to maximize rewards relative to costs in relationships.

Satisfaction and attraction are defined in terms of expectations and outcomes.

Individuals compare relationship outcomes to two standards – the comparison level (CL) and the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt).
The comparison levels are determined either using others’ relationships or past relationships.

The CL is the standard against which the attractiveness of the relationship is evaluated. When the level of outcomes exceeds this, the individual is satisfied with the relationship.

The CLalt is the standard used to determine whether to stay or leave the relationship. If an alternative is not available (this may include no relationship), the individual may continue in the relationship.

Investment Model(Rusbult, 1980): The Investment Model is an extension of Interdependence Theory which includes relationship commitment and investments.

Commitment is a function of high satisfaction, few alternatives, and high investment.

Satisfaction is a function of rewards minus costs. Alternatives are the perceived desirability of other relationships.

Ideal Standards Model(Simpson, Fletcher, & Campbell, 2001): The ideal standards model is an extension of Interdependence theory and Self-discrepancy theory.

Partner and relationship ideals are chronically-accessible knowledge structures that influence relationship judgments.

These standards have three functions: evaluation, explanation, and regulation.

Larger discrepancies between perceptions of a partner or the relationships with these standards results in lower evaluations of the partner and the relationship.

Attatchment Theory:
This is a psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory that provides a descriptive framework for understanding interpersonal relationships.

Begins with the premise that infants have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers.

The relevant infant behaviour is primarily a process of seeking proximity with an identified attachment figure.

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Clear behavioural expectations

Individual ability to meet the demands of the situation

Incentives for compliance (or threats for non-compliance)

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Moreover, both male and female physical violence was highest in couples where a male partner had high attachment avoidance paired with a female partner with high attachment anxiety.

Male violence predicted female violence.

Female attachment anxiety predicted violence.

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Although romantic partners and male friends’ physical attractiveness are correlated (r =.48 & .38), female partners’ attractiveness doesn't correlate (r = .00) (Feingold, 1988).

People who conform to gender roles, care more about physical attractiveness (Andersen & Bem, 1981).

People prefer good companions, considerate, honest, affectionate, dependable, intelligent, kind, understanding, interesting, and loyal long-term mates (Buss & Barnes, 1986).

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Mischel (1968) argued that behaviour on one occasion was unrelated to behaviour on a second occasion; therefore personality cannot exist

Shweder (1975): “The Conceptual Similarity Critique”
 “How people classify” is mistaken as “how to classify people”
Coherence of personality traits (discovered by factor analysis [week 10]) simply reflect judgements of conceptual similarity

The Fundamental Attribution Error” (also called “correspondance bias”; Gilbert & Malone, 1995). People mistakenly explain behaviour in terms of dispositional factors rather than to situational factors

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Duty

Mating

Sociality

1. Situational selection:
 Where traits predict entering a strong or consequential situation
 e.g., extraversion and accidents

2. Situational evocation:
 Where traits impact on the dynamics of a particular situation
 e.g., traits (e.g., low agreeableness)  relationship quality  divorce

3. Situational perception:
 Where traits shape appraisals of a situation, and thus an individual’s experience of that situation, e.g.,
 agreeableness  opportunities to cooperate;
 neuroticism  negativity and frustrations;
 openness/intellect  intellectually engaging

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 Focus of content analyses:
 Tone (Positive/optimistic/utopian, negative/pessimistic/dystopian)
 Themes (Preoccupations with certain problems, goals etc)
 Form (Stability? Change? Slow vs. rapid progress? Inertia?)

The unity and purpose of the self: A ‘personal myth’

Narrative Identity: The internal, dynamic life story that an individual constructs to make sense of his or her life

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 Subjectivity:
 Different people reach a different reduced set of Allport & Odbert’s descriptors

 (Poor) Replicability / Reproducibility:
 Using Cattell’s 171 personality descriptors, many people failed to obtain his same 16 factors

 Redundancy:
 Many of his factors correlated too highly for them to really be ‘different’ traits

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religion

gender

age

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 Personality has a developmental trajectory, but in relative terms remains fairly stable

Mean level stability is relatively low

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 Personality changes for everyone - development and ‘maturation’

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When two people like each other and discover that they are similar, this represents a balanced state.

Unbalanced states involve negative affect.

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 Authoritarianism: more obedience from those who respect and value authority
 Locus of control: more obedience from those with an external locus of control

that people are exposed to powerful treatments, the role of the individual differences among them are minimized”

 above average trait-behaviour effects emerge even in ‘strong situations’ in replicated studies.

 Fleeson (2001): Individuals vary over time and space in their personality state expressions……but also are highly stable:

 Average levels of personality states are well predicted by personality trait questionnaires

 Techniques for assessing behaviours/experiences multiple times per day for several days or weeks

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• Regularities in behaviour and experience

 A person’s typical mode of response

Our identity and our reputation

There is no one definition

Dispositional traits

Life Narratives

Characteristic Adaptions

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Important characteristics will, over human history, be coded in language.  Collected an exhaustive list of personality descriptors – about 18,000 terms (e.g., sociable, aggressive…)

Personality traits are probabilistic descriptions of regularities in behaviour and experience

Factor Analysis
A statistical method that reduces several correlated variables to much fewer composite variables or factors…

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a personality system or taxonomy system

 describing the structure of personality

 Organizing the universe of trait descriptors

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 Moderate trait-situation correlations, e.g.,
 Neuroticism  situations high in Negativity,
 Extraversion  situations high in Sociality,
 Conscientiousness  situations high in Duty

 Correlated predictors can make it harder to detect interactions

Breil & Vazire, 2017
 Possible role of situation perception, inflating trait-situation correlations

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 Genetics and evolutionary history

 Upbringing, parenting

 Social context and culture

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1. Family studies: siblings vs. more distant relatives

2. Twin studies: identical vs. fraternal twins

3. Adoption studies: siblings raised together vs. apart

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Personality a weak predictor of behaviour (r ~ .30).

Behaviour varies considerably over situations.

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