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Flashcards by Em Maskrey, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Em Maskrey
almost 7 years ago
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| Question | Answer |
| Emile Durkheim was of the opinion that every society shares a set of core values. How does he refer to this? | As a collective conscience. |
| According to Durkheim, a strong collective conscience, supported by a fair legal system, formed the basis of social order. However, Durkheim did identify that there are two different sides of crime and deviance. What are they? | 1. The positive side, which helps society to remain dynamic. 2. The negative side, which results in too much destruction. |
| Durkheim argues that crime, in limited amounts, is necessary for any society for three main reasons. What are they? | 1. Reaffirming boundaries. 2. Changing values. 3. Social cohesion. |
| Other writers have also suggested that crime can have positive effects. Which sociologist describes crime as a 'safety valve'? | Kingsley Davis. |
| Which sociologist stated that crime can actually improve the economy and employment rate by creating jobs for law enforcement? | Albert Cohen. |
| However, the idea that crime benefits society goes against the typical view that crime is harmful. ich left realists stress that crime can cause real problems for victims, especially those who are already at a disadvantage? | Crime can cause real problems for victims, especially those who are already at a disadvantage. |
| What do right realists James Wilson and George Kelling point out about the negative consequences of crime? | Crime can harm community cohesion and informal social control. |
| While certain limited amounts of crime can have positive effects, too much crime has negative consequences. According to Durkheim, excessive crime could be the result of which two problems with the collective conscience? | 1. Anomie. 2. Egoism. |
| What is meant by 'anomie'? | During times of great social change, values may be challenged and dismissed without a replacement being made, which results in uncertainty about the collective conscience. Citizens are freed from the social control and able to engage in deviant and criminal activity. |
| What is meant by 'egoism'? | This occurs when the collective conscience simply becomes too weak to restrain the selfish desires of individuals. |
| According to Tim Newburn, which two aspects of Durkheim's work have been central in the development of sociological thinking on crime? | 1. The idea that some level of crime is normal in society. 2.The idea that crime is linked to the values of particular societies and understanding that these values can change. |
| However, what did Newburn think Durkheim paid too little attention to? | How powerful individuals and groups could have undue influence on what acts were seen as criminal. |
| What does Durkheim potentially exaggerate? | The extent to which the collective conscience exists - not everyone agrees with laws and morals. |
| How do Ian Taylor et al respond to Durkheim's view that some crime can be positive? | It is not the crime itself that is positive, but the publicising of crime and punishment. |
| Furthermore, Durkheim has been criticised for being too vague when defining what? | Which crimes are positive and which are negative. |
| In the 1930s, Robert Merton tried to develop an explanation of deviance within a functionalist framework. However, on what point did Merton disagree with fellow functionalists? | He did not believe that all aspects of society are entirely beneficial - some could, and do, become dysfunctional and require change. |
| According to Merton, crime and deviance are evidence of what? | A strain between the socially accepted goals of society and socially accepted means of obtaining said goals. |
| Merton used the example of the American dream, which claimed that even the poorest could reach the highest levels of society. How did Merton respond to this? | He believed this was an illusion - not everyone had the same opportunity to achieve. |
| Merton argued that the system only works if there is a reasonable chance for the majority of people to achieve their goals. However, in America, this wasn't possible. What were many people subsequently turning to? | Alternative, often deviant, ways of behaving. Merton used Durkheim's term 'anomie' to describe this situation. |
| Merton identified five different forms of behaviour that can be understood as a response to the strain between goals and means. What are they? | 1. Conformity. 2. Innovation. 3. Ritualism. 4. Retreatism. 5. Rebellion. |
| What is 'conformity'? | The individual continues to adhere to both goals and means, despite the limited likelihood of success. This is the typical response for most people. |
| What is 'innovation'? | The individual accepts the goals of society, but resorts to different ways to achieve said goals. This may include criminal behaviour. This response is more common of lower social classes, who have a lower chance of succeeding than those of higher classes. |
| What is 'ritualism'? | The individual immerses themselves in the daily routine and regulations of their job, but loses sight of the goal of material success. |
| What is 'retreatism'? | The individual fails to achieve success and rejects both goals and means. |
| What is rebellion? | The individual rejects socially acceptable goals and means, and substitutes different ones instead. |
| Why did Merton believe that deviancy was more common amongst the lower classes? | He believed that they were frustrated by their lack of achievement and turned to crime to make money or simply dropped out of the 'rat race' altogether. |
| Because there is no upper limit on success, what do we occasionally see? | Middle- and higher-class criminals, who are greedy despite having 'more'. |
| Merton has been criticised for his emphasise on the existence of common goals within society. Which sociologist argues that there are actually a variety of goals that people strive to attain at any one time? | Claire Valier. |
| According to Ian Taylor et al, what does Merton underestimate? | The amount of middle- and upper-class crime. |
| What does Merton fail to explain? | Crimes that do not produce material reward, and the role of subcultures and illegitimate opportunities in crime and deviance. |
| Nonetheless, Merton's work has been very influential. Which sociologist argues that there is "much mileage" in Merton's work? | Robert Reiner. |
| Strain theory had a significant impact on Cloward and Ohlin, who agreed with Merton that the lack of opportunity in the legitimate opportunity structure was a cause of crime. However, what did they believe Merton failed to appreciate? | There is a parallel opportunity structure to the legal one, which they call the illegitimate opportunity structure. |
| What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'illegitimate opportunity structure'? | For some subcultures in society, a regular illegal career is available. This involves illegal means of obtaining society's goals. |
| Cloward and Ohlin state that the illegitimate opportunity structure has three possible adaptations. What are they? | 1. Criminal. 2. Conflict. 3. Retreatist. |
| What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'criminal'? | There is a thriving criminal subculture. Young offenders, who may have 'criminal role models', can 'climb the ladder' in the criminal hierarchy. They may see examples of people from the same background as themselves succeeding through criminal means, and be attracted to the lifestyle. |
| What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'conflict'? | Territorial gangs recruit and/or press-gang young locals into their service. These gangs then often engage in violence against one another, because violence is a means of achieving respect and status for young people. This respect and status may substitute for qualifications and/or a well-paid job. |
| What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'retreatist'? | Where an individual fails to fit into one of the other two alternative subcultures, they are labelled as 'double failures' and retreat into alcohol and/or drugs, often spending time with fellow retreatists. |
| Cloward and Ohlin can be criticised for overestimating the amount of organised crime that exists in Britain. Which two sociologists found that rather than large-scale, well-structured crime organisations, lose-knit networks are more common? | Vincenzo Ruggiero and Kazim Khan. |
| Cloward and Ohlin's theory implies that there is a neat distinction between the criminal, conflict and retreatist subcultures. Why can this be disputed? | It seems unlikely - overlap is to be expected. |
| Cloward and Ohlin can also be criticised for failing to discuss which types of offenders? | 1. Female offenders. 2. Middle- and upper-class offenders. |
| Albert Cohen was particularly interested in understanding why a large proportion of offending is non-utilitarian. What ideas did he draw upon? | Both Merton's ideas of strain theory and the ethnographic ideas of the Chicago school of sociology. |
| Give examples of non-utilitarian crime: | Joyriding, loitering and vandalism. |
| According to Cohen, a large amount of delinquent behaviour is a group activity. Why can this be used to criticise Merton's theory? | Merton's work explained why individuals might be motivated to commit crimes, but not why crimes often take place in groups. |
| What concept is Cohen famous for? | The concept of status frustration. |
| What is status frustration? | A sense of anger and personal inadequacy that the working class as a result of being unable to middle-class values. |
| What is the result of status frustration? | The rejection of unachievable values. |
| Cohen's theory has been influential in studies of delinquency, gangs and subcultures and offers plausible explanation for some offending. However, what does Stephen Box suggest about the number of people the theory applies to? | It may only apply to a minority of offenders who originally accepted mainstream values before turning against them. |
| Which sociologist suggests that opposition to mainstream values is more widespread in the working class because their culture doesn't correspond with the largely middle-class environment of schools? | Walter Miller. |
| Cohen's theory is limited in that it fails to explain what? | Female offenders. |
| Cohen bases his explanation upon success and failure at school. What does he underplay? | The significance of relationships outside school, which may play a bigger role in the formation of subcultures. |
| Subcultural theory and Cohen's work have been criticised by the American sociologist David Matza. What does he argue about distinctive subcultural values? | They do not exist. |
| Matza claimed that all groups in society use a shared set of subterranean values. What do subterranean values prioritise? | Spontaneity, a degree of rebellion, and self-expression. |
| Subterranean values sometimes result in people straying outside of society's norms. However, what is important to understand about the frequency of this disobedience? | It is rare. Most of the time, people control their deviant desires. They emerge infrequently, but even when they do occur, this does not mean that the individual is rejecting mainstream values altogether; they are merely suspending observance temporarily. |
| Many approaches seek to explain deviant behaviour by looking for some rational reason as to why the subculture might have developed. Conversely, does Jack Katz argue? | Crime occurs simply because it is seductive - young men get drawn into it, not because of any process of rejection but because it is thrilling. |
| Stephen Lyng puts forward a similar argument. According to Lyng, what do young males enjoy doing? | Taking risks and engaging in 'edgework'. |
| What concept did Michel Maffesoli put forward? | The concept of neo-tribes. |
| Maffesoli was unhappy with the idea that subcultures are stable and clearly defined groups of people who share very similar values. He claimed that subcultures are actually fluid, occasional gatherings. As such, what does the term 'neo-tribe' refer to? | States of mind that are very flexible. |
| What is arguably the most widely publicised type of subculture? | The juvenile gang. |
| Despite the widespread media coverage of youth gangs, which implies widespread gang membership, what are the statistics on gang membership among youths? | Only 6 to 9% of young people claim to belong or to have ever belonged to a gang, and just 2% claim to carry or to have ever carried a knife. |
| Researchers suggest that the idea of a gang is defined differently by different young people. Ben Marshall argues that there are three distinct categories of youth groupings. What are they? | 1. Peer groups (unorganised groups who tend to hang around in a particular place but do not offend or, if they do, it is incidental). 2. Gangs (unorganised groups who have a focus on offending and violence). 3. Organised criminal groups (organised groups who are heavily involved in serious crime). |
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