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What are the three main ways of gathering statistics on ethnicity and offending and punishment?	1. Official police and criminal justice system statistics. 2. Self-report studies. 3. Victimisation studies.
In England and Wales, people from some minority ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested for and convicted of crime than the White majority. Blacks are how much more likely than Whites to be arrested?	Twice as likely.
Blacks are how much more likely than Whites to be imprisoned?	Three times as likely.
Official statistics thus indicate that Black people are more likely to be criminal than White people. Why can official statistics not always be trusted, however?	They don't always provide a valid and reliable picture of criminality. They show how many people have been suspected of criminality or have suffered criminalisation, but don't show how many crimes have actually been committed.
Sociologists of race and crime are divided over what matter?	Whether official statistics indicate real differences in offending rates between ethnic groups or simply indicate that the police and courts are biased and are prone to unfairly labelling some ethnic groups more than others, due to conscious or unconscious racism.
An alternative way of collecting crime statistics is through the use of self-report studies. What do these studies rely on?	The honesty and accuracy of respondents.
Self-report studies reveal offending that has not resulted in arrests and convictions. What do they therefore provide?	An indication of whether offenders from some ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested and convicted than those from other ethnic groups.
If some ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested and convicted than those from other ethnic groups, what does this suggest?	Racial bias in the criminal justice system.
The last major self-report study of ethnicity and offending was carried out in 2005. How many people participated?	More than 10,000, plus an additional sample of minority ethnic groups.
The survey collected data on 20 core offences. Which ethnic group had the highest rates of offending?	Whites - 42% admitted to committing an offence during their lifetime.
There was only one category in which Black offending rates were higher than White rates. What was it?	Robbery.
However, robbery only accounts for a small proportion of crime and therefore cannot explain the overrepresentation of Black offenders in the criminal justice system. What does the data therefore suggest?	There is indeed racial bias in the criminal justice system.
How are victim surveys carried out?	Members of the public are whether they've been victims of crime in the preceding 12 months.
According to the CSEW, in 2012-2013, which group had the highest risk of being a victim of crime?	Ethnic minorities.
However, victimisation is not solely linked to ethnicity. Which sociologists argue that the higher risk of victimisation for ethnic minorities is partially the result of the relatively high proportion of them living in inner-cities, which have particularly high crime rates?	Coretta Phillips and Benjamin Bowling.
Given the high rates of victimisation, it is unsurprising that there is greater fear of crime among minority ethnic groups than the population as a whole. How do minority ethnic groups respond to their fear of crime?	They are not passive - there have been active attempts to combat victimisation through measures ranging from campaigns for greater police protection to local crime prevention initiatives.
Like all crime statistics, the findings of victimisation studies aren't wholly valid and reliable. However, what do they consistently suggest?	Ethnic groups are generally at more risk.
Tim Newburn notes that there has been a great deal of controversy over relationships between police and minority ethnic groups over recent decades. Which famous case sparked controversy over the way police handled the murder of a young Black man?	The Stephen Lawrence case.
Following the poor handling of the Stephen Lawrence case, which inquiry was held to uncover whether there was an underlying issue?	The Macpherson Inquiry.
What did the Macpherson Inquiry find?	The Metropolitan Police was institutionally racist.
In 2009, the Runnymede Trust reviewed the evidence about whether policing for and of minority ethnic groups had improved since the Macpherson Inquiry. What did it find?	There had been many attempts to improve policing but progress was very slow.
According to the Runnymede Trust, how many police officers were from minority ethnic backgrounds?	4%.
What has sometimes been seen as the reason for overt racism within the police?	Police culture, in which officers have distinctive working values and a strong collective identity as a result of the pressure, isolation and hostility they can face on the job.
Which sociologist identifies the 'core characteristics' of the police culture?	Jeffery Reiner.
What are the core characteristics of police culture, according to Reiner?	- Cynicism. - Conservatism. - Suspicion. - Isolation from the public. - Macho values. - Racism.
Today, it is much harder for officers to demonstrate overt racism without facing punishment, but hidden racism may still exist. Which BBC documentary gave evidence of this?	The Secret Policeman.
The hidden racism of police officers may be reflected in which statistics?	The statistics on stop and searches.
Black people are how much more likely than White people to be stopped and searched?	Five times more likely.
Ministry of Justice figures show that Black people make up a much higher proportion of arrests that the population as a whole. Phillips and Bowling state that after arrest, non-white groups are significantly more likely that Whites to do what?	Remain silent, seek legal advice and deny the offence.
After a caution, which group are more likely to be released?	Whites.
Figures produced by the Ministry of Justice show that Whites are slightly more likely than Black and Asian defendants to be convicted of indictable offences once they have been sent for trial. However, what are Blacks and Asians more likely to receive?	Immediate custodial sentences.
There is a somewhat mixed picture in terms of evidence for or against racism in sentencing, but Black minority ethnic groups are certainly overrepresented in prison. In 2012, what percentage of the prison population were from Black ethnic groups?	11%. This is compared to just 3.3% of the population as a whole.
What are the three theories of race and criminality provided in this chapter?	1. The left realist approach. 2. The anti-racist perspective. 3. The neo-marxist theory.
Who are the two leading writers of the left realist approach?	John Lea and Jock Young.
Lea and Young accept that there are racist practices among the police. However, what do they point out about the statistics?	They argue that despite racist practices, there are higher crime rates for street robberies and associated personal crimes among Blacks.
Lea and Young claim that the high crime rates of Black youths is unsurprising. Why?	They argue that British society is racist and minority ethnic groups (particularly young Black men) are at a disadvantage. Their therefore suffer relative deprivation, which can lead to crime.
Some sociologists believe that the statistics on crime rates show racism in the police and CJS. Why do Lea and Young disagree?	While there are racist practices among police, there is such a difference in offending rates between ethnic groups that it is unlikely that this is purely the result of racism.
What figure do Lea and Young use to counter the argument that the statistics indicate racism?	They show that recorded rates of crime for some minority ethnic groups (e.g. Asians) are relatively low, despite the fact that they too could be subject to racism.
Which sociologist developed the anti-racist approach?	Paul Gildroy.
What does the anti-racist perspective focus on?	The role of racism and ethnic inequality in creating injustice.
Gilroy rejects the left realist approach. Why?	He argues that left realists are wrong to argue that crime rates are higher for minority ethnic groups.
Paul Gilroy refers to a 'myth of Black criminality'. What does he mean by this?	He argues that the difference in crime rates between different ethnic groups is the result of police stereotyping and racist labelling.
Unlike Lea and Young, Gilroy does not believe that what crime there is among Black British ethnic groups is a result of relative deprivation. What does he believe the cause of Black crime is?	He sees Black crime as a legacy of the struggle against White dominance in former colonies such as Jamaica.
Although Lea and Young accept that some criminal acts, such as rioting, could involve protest against marginalisation, Paul Gilroy goes much further. How?	He sees most Black crime as essentially political and a part of the general resistance to White rule.
Lea and Young have been critical of Gilroy's work, particularly criticising his belief that Black crime is a demonstration of resistance against White dominance. What do they point out?	Most Black crime is actually interracial, which doesn't really reflect a political struggle against the White majority.
Lea and Young also criticise Gilroy for taking a 'romantic' view. What do they mean by this?	He transforms offenders from criminals to 'Robin Hood' activists and thus presents them in a sympathetic light. In doing so, he omits the very real harm their offences cause.
How can Gilroy's methodology be criticised?	He uses very little empirical evidence.
What criticism can be made about both Gilroy's and Lea and Young's work?	They were written some time ago and the arguments may have little relevance to today.
Which study illustrates the neo-marxist approach to ethnicity and crime?	Stuart Hall et al's (1978) study of muggings in London in the 1970s.
Hall examined a period of crisis for British capitalism. The political and financial unrest led to the government arguing in favour of the use of force in maintaining order. However, use of force needed justification. How did the government and the media justify it?	They argued that we were experiencing an increase in mugging, particularly by young Black men in London.
Hall argued that focusing on a group who were already viewed negatively was beneficial because it drew attention away from the government and instead pinned it on young Black men. As such, how can said men be described?	As 'scapegoats'.
Did Hall et al believe there really was a mugging epidemic?	No, he believed the problem of mugging was largely manufactured by the police and the media.
Hall et al link the case study to which two concept?	1. Hegemony. 2. Moral panics.
Hall el al's work has the merit of looking at the big picture. By looking at the bigger picture, what does Hall et al's work avoid?	Over-generalisations about crime and ethnicity.
Which sociologist points out that some Asian groups (e.g. Pakistanis) have experienced relatively high levels of deprivation, just like Black groups?	Alpa Parmar.
Despite experiencing high levels of deprivation, what are Asian groups less likely to have happen to them?	They are less likely to be convicted of offences.
Parmar's findings may suggest that cultural differences may be responsible for the apparent difference in criminality. What did Colin Webster argue about Black family structures and the impact this has on Black criminality?	He argued that high rates of single parenthood in Black ethnic groups meant that boys from these groups were more likely to offend because their behaviour wasn't governed by fathers and they lacked male role models.
In contrast, how did Webster describe Asian family structures?	As more stable, which might increase the monitoring and social control of individuals.
Parmar argues that it is dangerous to generalise about the family structure of particular ethnic groups. What does she claim the differences are likely a result of?	She states that differences in recorded offending are likely linked to a variety of social and economic inequalities.
However, what does Parmar concede?	Cultural factors (e.g. family structure) may play a part in explaining the differences in offending, alongside other factors.
Following his extensive research into ethnicity and gang crime in London, what did John Pitts conclude is relevant to explaining ethnic-minority crime?	Both material and cultural factors.

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