Final Lab Exam Environment Science

Question	Answer
Hypothesis	reasonable explanation for an observation, an "educated guess."
Prediction	A prediction is a statement of what will happen under certain circumstances if the hypothesis is true.
Independent Variable	The independent variable is the factor that is intentionally made different at the beginning of the experiment, and at least two different cases (velocity) of that factor must be examined
What is the independent variable in the Lab 1 regarding meteorite impact?	Velocity
Dependent Variable	This is the variable that is measured to see if changing the independent variable had an effect. It is the kind of data that is being collected.
Controlled Variable	any given experiment will have several. Controlled variables are the factors that might affect the dependent variable and that therefore must be consistent for all cases of the independent variable tested
Joule	The amount of energy released by an impact event is measured in joules. One joule is defined as the amount of work done by a force of one Newton moving an object through a distance of one meter.
Data Tables	Data tables are a good way to record and organize data
Graphs	graphs can often help to clarify the relationships between the independent and the dependent variables by depicting them visually. When graphing the results of an experiment, the dependent variable is represented on the vertical or Y-axis and the independent variable on the horizontal or X-axis
4 Steps or Parts of a Good Analysis	(1) begins with a statement of the hypothesis, (2) indicates the kind of data that would support the hypothesis (the prediction), (3) cites the relevant data that were collected (gives examples that illustrate the trend you see), and (4) draws a conclusion as to whether or not the hypothesis was supported
4 Questions That Should Be Asked When Evaluating the Design of an Experiment	(1.) Is there only one independent variable and why do you think it is an appropriate one for testing the hypothesis? (2.) Is the dependent variable accurately measured and why do you think it is an appropriate one for testing the hypothesis? (3.) Are all of the other potentially important variables controlled (maintained the same in all cases of the independent variable)? (4.) Is there enough data?
Mode	The mode is the value that appears most frequently in your data set
Median	The median is the value that occurs in the middle of the data set.
Mean	Average
Range	The range describes the highest and lowest values in a data set.
Standard Deviation	If we sum all of the deviations from the mean, we end up with zero, and this tells us nothing about the data's dispersion. To get around this, we need to look at the absolute values of the deviations, and one way to do this is to square each of them and add them up. If we divide this sum by one less than the number of values, this will give us the variance of each data point. The variance describes how far each value is from the mean. While the variance gives you an indication of the deviation of each value from the mean, the variance is in "squared" units and it is difficult to relate to the "unsquared" mean. We can undo the squaring by taking the square root of the variance, which will provide us with a measure of data dispersion in the same units as the mean. This value is known as the standard deviation (SD).
Normal Distribution	Data that have a bell-shaped distribution when plotted, are said to have a "normal" distribution. A normal distribution is symmetrical, with the majority of the points near the center (mean) and fewer as you progress away from the center
When Are Bar Graphs Most Useful	If you can break your data into discrete groups like those shown here, then a bar graph is appropriate. Bar graphs are useful for graphing non-continuous data, such as data from different experimental groups
When are line graphs most useful?	If your data are continuous (each point is directly related to the next and can be connected by an infinite number of intermediate points), then a line graph is the way to go. Line graphs are commonly used in scientific studies to present data when time (a continuous variable) is one of the variables involved
When is it most useful to use a scatter plot?	In some cases you may need to graph two variables against one another to determine their relationship. You graph one variable on the X-axis and the other on the Y-axis, and then graph your points accordingly
Pointers on reading a scatter plot...	Note that the points form an upward-sloping line, which indicates the two variables have a positive relationship to one another. Had the line sloped downward, this would suggest a negative relationship. If the points were scattered about and no clear relationship was visible, this would mean the two variables are unrelated to one another.
Inferential Statistics	Inferential statistics are used to make comparisons between data sets and infer whether the two data sets are significantly different from one another.
Binomial Distribution	This distribution describes the probabilities for events when you have two possible outcomes
When should you reject your hypothesis?	This leads to our statistical "rule of thumb" - whenever a statistical test returns a probability value (or "p-value") equal to or less than 0.05, we reject the hypothesis that our results fit the distribution we are testing.
t-test	The t-test is an inferential statistic that enables you to compare the means of two groups and determine if they are statistically different from one another.
SI/Metric Units	length = meter mass = kilogram time = second electric current = ampere thermodynamic temperature = kelvin amount of substance = mole luminous intensity = candela
First Law of Thermodynamics or Conservation of Energy Principle	his law is usually stated as, "Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transferred from one form to another."
What are the only 2 ways to transfer energy?	1. Heat 2. Work
US Energy Per Capita	Our current energy per capita use is over 330 million BTU's of energy. Put another way, this means that the average U.S. citizen would be responsible for using almost 60 barrels of crude oil each year, if all of the energy used in America came from oil.
What is the USA's world population % and how much total energy we consume?	Although we make up only about 5% of the world's population, we account for almost 25% of all of its energy consumption
The majority of the energy we use comes from what source?	Fossil Fuels (82%)
What are the 3 tops fossil fuels we use?	1. Crude Oil 2. Coal 3. Natural Gas
Which 3 areas do we use energy for in the USA?	Of the energy used in the U.S., about 38% of it is used for industrial processes (mining, milling, etc.), 36% of it is used to power homes and offices, and 28% of it is used for transportation
Define Heat	heat is the energy transferred between objects of different temperature
Define Temperature	the property that two objects have in common when no heat is transferred between them when placed in thermal contact.
Conduction	The most predominant type of heat transfer for the majority of homes is known as conduction, which occurs when two regions of different temperature are put into direct contact, but are not allowed to mix
The rate at which heat transfers via conduction depends on what 4 things?	(1) the thickness of the material L, (2) the thermal conductivity k (this depends on the composition of the material), (3) surface area of the material A, and 4) the temperature difference between the reservoirs
R-value	R-value of objects instead of their thermal conductivity. This is a measure of how well the material resists the flow of heat through it, and it combines the thermal conductivity and thickness into one term (R-value = thickness/thermal conductivity = L/k)
Convection	Convection is heat transport by movement and mixing
2nd Law of Thermodynamics	the Second Law of Thermodynamics puts limits on the amount of usable energy that can be transferred. One of the consequences of this law is that the total amount of usable energy that comes out of any process will be less than the total amount of energy that went into the process. The difference between the total amount of energy input and the usable energy output is expended as waste heat.
Which light bulb is more efficient: Incandescent or Fluorescent?	Fluorescent (20% efficient) Incandescent (5% efficient)
What consumes most of the energy in our homes?	Appliances - over 50%
Biogeochemical Cycles	The transport and transformation of substances in the environment are known collectively as biogeochemical cycles. These global cycles involve the circulation of elements and nutrients that sustain both the biological and physical aspects of the environment.
What 2 ways can Carbon Dioxide be removed from the atmosphere?	1. Photosynthesis 2. Absorbed by water
The Greenhouse Effect	The effect of infrared re-radiation being absorbed in the atmosphere is called the "Greenhouse Effect" since it mimics what happens in a real greenhouse
Which 3 gases absorb infrared radiation very well?	water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane
Which gas has the greatest contribution to atmospheric heating due to the greenhouse effect here on Earth?	Water Vapor
Allometry	The term allometry is defined as "the measure and study of relative growth of a part in relation to an entire organism or to a standard"
Equation for above ground biomass	log10M = -1.25 + 2.66 log10D
Kyoto Protocols	Kyoto Protocols. These are an agreement that countries will reduce the amount of greenhouse gasses that they emit in the future by an amount that depends upon the country in questio
What does the Kyoto Protocols from the 1990's mean for the USA?	For the U.S., this treaty would mean that we would have to reduce our carbon dioxide emissions by 2010 to 7% lower than our 1990 levels
2 Primary ways to reduce Carbon Dioxide	1. Limit burning fossil fuels 2. Absorb more of it (more trees!)
Carbon Credits	One proposed method for doing this is to increase the number of trees that a country has. This idea has spawned the concept of carbon credits. A country could bring itself into compliance with the Kyoto Protocol by planting enough trees to offset the amount of carbon dioxide that it emitted above its stated levels. Or, if the country could not plant enough trees to meet this level, it could buy credits from a country that did have enough excess trees to consume the additional carbon dioxide.
Is the USA part of the Kyoto Protocol Treaty?	No, they never signed.
What are the 4 primary ways we use water in the USA?	● Domestic and residential uses ● Industrial uses ● Agricultural uses ● Energy development use
Examples of instream water uses	● Water quality and habitat improvement ● Recreation ● Navigation ● Fish propagation ● Hydroelectric power production
largest demand for water withdrawals (fresh and saline) is for:	Thermoelectric generation
Largest demand for water withdrawals for freshwater only	irrigation
Categories for Water Use	● Municipal/public supply ● Domestic and commercial ● Industrial and mining ● Agricultural ● Thermoelectric powet
Per capita use of public water is about 50 percent higher in the West than the East mostly due to what?	Irrigation
Examples of Domestic/Commercial Water Use:	● Drinking and cooking ● Bathing ● Toilet flushing ● Washing clothes and dishes ● Watering lawns and gardens ● Maintaining swimming pools ● Washing cars
Which room in the home uses the most water?	Bathroom Toilet 41% Shower/Sink 33%
Study ways to improve water use in the home:	http://esa21.kennesaw.edu/activities/water-use/using-water-wisely-epa.pdf copy and paste this link to see ideas
xeriscape	noun 1. a style of landscape design requiring little or no irrigation or other maintenance, used in arid regions. verb 1. landscape (an area) in a style which requires little or no irrigation.
Ninety nine percent of the human body is composed of just 6 chemical elements:	oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus.
How many chemical elements are there?	There are 116 known chemical elements, of which 91 occur naturally. The other 25 are man-made.
Chemical compounds	Chemical compounds are formed by the combination of two or more elements
Organic chemicals	Organic chemicals are those chemicals that contain the element carbon, C
Half-Life	The rate at which a chemical degrades is expressed as half-life, the amount of time it takes for half of the chemical to be converted into some other chemical or element
Inorganic Chemicals	Inorganic chemicals include salt, asbestos, and silicates as well as minerals such as iron, aluminum, and phosphorus, among others.
Natural Chemicals vs. Synthetic Chemicals	Natural chemicals are those which are found occurring in the environment which are not introduced by humans. Synthetic chemicals are those which are developed by humans and do not exist in nature
NIH - what does it stand for?	National Institutes of Health (NIH)
MSDS - what does it stand for?	Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
Who develops or produces the MSDS?	The company/manufacturer does
Ecological Footprint	Environmental scientists have developed a tool that does just this however, and presents the information in a manner that is easily visualized despite the underlying complexities. It is known as an “ecological footprint”, and it describes the area of land needed to supply the resources used and wastes
Natural Capital	Nature’s ability to provide resources and process wastes is known as “natural capital”
Ecological footprints are calculated by examining the amount of land used for:	(a.) Cultivating food crops (b.) Grazing livestock (c.) Growing timber (d.) Harvesting fish and other organisms from oceans (e.) Housing, infrastructure (roads, bridges), transportation, shopping, energy production (f.) Sequestering in trees the carbon dioxide produced by driving, electricity usage, etc.
Acres in metric measurement	Hectares
How many acres of productive land on the planet per person are there?	4.7 acres
Which country has the lowest ecological footprint?	Bangladesh
Which country has the highest ecological footprint?	USA
What lab did we do for Module 5?	Trick question, there were no labs. Thank God!!!
matter	may be transformed from one type of substance into others, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
chemistry	The study of the different types of matter and how they interact.
the law of the conservation of matter	a. The physical law stating that matter may be transformed from one type of substance into others, but that it cannot be created or destroyed.
Elements especially abundant on our planet...	oxygen, hydrogen, silicon, nitrogen, and carbon
protons	Atoms of each element contain a specific number of protons (positively charged particles) in the atom’s nucleus (its dense center) i. The number of protons is the atom’s Atomic Number
neutrons	Most atoms also contain neutrons (particles lacking electrical charge) in their nuclei
element's mass number	element’s mass number denotes the combined number of protons and neutrons in the atom.
electrons	An atom’s nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles known as electrons
isotopes	a. Atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons
molecules	A combination of two or more atoms.
compound	A molecule whose atoms are composed of two or more elements.
polymers	A chemical compound or mixture of compounds consisting of long chains of repeated molecules. Important biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are examples of polymers.
acidic	The property of a solution in which the concentration of hydrogen (H+) ions is greater than the concentration of hydroxide (OH–) ions.
Basic	The property of a solution in which the concentration of hydroxide (OH–) ions is greater than the concentration of hydrogen (H+) ions. (a.k.a. – alkaline)
pH scale	i. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14: ii. A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral; solutions wit iii. h a pH below 7 are acidic, and those with a pH higher than 7 are basic. Because the pH scale is logarithmic, each step on the scale represents a 10-fold difference in hydrogen ion concentration.
macromolecules	A very large molecule, such as a protein, nucleic acid, carbohydrate, or lipid.
lipids	A class of chemical compounds that do not dissolve in water and are used in organisms for energy storage, for structural support, and as key components of cellular membranes.
carbohydrate	An organic compound consisting of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 1. Starch
cellulose	the most abundant organic compound on Earth, is a complex carbohydrate found in the cell walls of leaves, bark, stems, and roots.
protein	- A macromolecule made up of long chains of amino acids. 1. help produce tissues and provide structural support; 2. store energy 3. support immune system 4. transport substances 5. hormones 6. act as enzymes
nucleic acids	A macromolecule that directs the production of proteins. Includes DNA and RNA. 1. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Describe how DNA is assembled from nucleotides.	a. DNA includes four types of nucleotides (a), each with a different nitrogenous base: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G). In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil (U). DNA (b) twists into the shape of a double helix.
energy	is the capacity to change the position, physical composition, or temperature of matter—in other words, a force that can accomplish work (when a force acts on an object, causing it to move).
Potential Energy	energy of position i. Example – a rock sitting at the top of the cliff that could be tipped over. There is potential energy present.
Kinetic Energy	energy of motion i. Example – the rock falling off the cliff, the motion of the rock falling is kinetic energy
entropy	systems tend to move toward increasing disorder, (think of a campfire- begins with firewood, burned, then becomes ash)
geothermal heating	Thermal energy that arises from beneath Earth’s surface, ultimately from the radioactive decay of elements amid high pressures deep underground. Can be used to generate electrical power in power plants, for direct heating via piped water, or in ground-source heat pumps.
autotrophs	An organism that can use the energy from sunlight to produce its own food. Includes green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
photosynthesis	The process by which autotrophs produce their own food. Sunlight powers a series of chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar (glucose), thus transforming low-quality energy from the sun into high-quality energy the organism can use
cellular respiration	The process by which a cell uses the chemical reactivity of oxygen to split glucose into its constituent parts, water and carbon dioxide, and thereby release chemical energy that can be used to form chemical bonds or to perform other tasks within the cell.
Heterotrophs	An organism that consumes other organisms. Includes most animals, as well as fungi and microbes that decompose organic matter.
Layers of Earth	a. Core - the innermost part of Earth, made up mostly of iron, that lies beneath the crust and mantle. b. Mantle - The malleable layer of rock that lies beneath Earth’s crust and surrounds a mostly iron core. c. Asthenosphere - A layer of the upper mantle, just below the lithosphere, consisting of especially soft rock. d. Lithosphere - The outer layer of Earth, consisting of crust and uppermost mantle and located just above the asthenosphere. More generally, the solid part of Earth, including the rocks, sediment, and soil at the surface and extending down many miles underground. e. Crust - The lightweight outer layer of the Earth, consisting of rock that floats atop the malleable mantle, which in turn surrounds a mostly iron core.
Rocks vs. Minerals	• Rock - A solid aggregation of minerals. • Mineral - A naturally occurring solid element or inorganic compound with a crystal structure, a specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties.
Divergent Plate Boundaries	a. Divergent Plate Boundaries - The area where tectonic plates push apart from one another as magma rises upward to the surface, creating new lithosphere as it cools and spreads. A prime example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Convergent Plates	b. Convergent Plate Boundaries – The area where tectonic plates converge or come together. Can result in subduction or continental collision
Transform Plate Boundaries	c. Transform Plate Boundaries - The area where two tectonic plates meet and slip and grind alongside one another, creating earthquakes. For example, the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate rub against each other along California’s San Andreas Fault.
Subduction	a. Subduction - The plate tectonic process by which denser crust slides beneath lighter crust at a convergent plate boundary. Often results in volcanism.
Continental Collision	b. Continental Collision - The meeting of two tectonic plates of continental lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary, wherein the continental crust on both sides resists subduction and instead crushes together, bending, buckling, and deforming layers of rock and forcing portions of the buckled crust upward, often creating mountain ranges.
Crystallization	Magma cools either underground or on the surface and hardens into an igneous rock. As the magma cools, different crystals form at different temperatures, undergoing crystallization. For example, the mineral olivine crystallizes out of magma at much higher temperatures than quartz. The rate of cooling determines how much time the crystals will have to form. Slow cooling produces larger crystals.
Erosion and Sedimentation Rock Cycle	Weathering wears rocks at the Earth’s surface down into smaller pieces. The small fragments are called sediments. Running water, ice, and gravity all transport these sediments from one place to another by erosion. During sedimentation, the sediments are laid down or deposited. In order to form a sedimentary rock, the accumulated sediment must become compacted and cemented together.
Metamorphism	When a rock is exposed to extreme heat and pressure within the Earth but does not melt, the rock becomes metamorphosed. Metamorphism may change the mineral composition and the texture of the rock. For that reason, a metamorphic rock may have a new mineral composition and/or texture.
Major Geological Disasters	• Earthquakes - A release of energy that occurs as Earth relieves accumulated pressure between masses of lithosphere and that results in shaking at the surface. • Volcanoes - A site where molten rock, hot gas, or ash erupts through Earth’s surface, often creating a mountain over time as cooled lava accumulates. • Landslides - The collapse and downhill flow of large amounts of rock or soil. A severe and sudden form of mass wasting. • Tsunamis - An immense swell, or wave, of ocean water triggered by an earthquake, volcano, or landslide that can travel long distances across oceans and inundate coasts.
pangaea	super continent
lithification	formation of rock through compaction
Amensalism	One species harms another (typically by releasing a toxic substance), but is not affected itself.
niche partitioning	(also referred to as resource partitioning), in which two species divide a limiting resource such as light, food supply, or habitat.
fundamental niche	• The full range of habitat types in which a species can exist and reproduce without any competition from other species
realized niche	can be thought of as its niche in practice—the range of habitat types from which it is not excluded by competing species. Realized niches are usually smaller than fundamental niches, since competitive interactions exclude species from at least some conditions under which they would otherwise grow.
parasitism	• In parasitism, an individual organism, the parasite, consumes nutrients from another organism, its host, resulting in a decrease in fitness to the host.
divide parasites into 2 categories	endoparasites, which live inside the body of their hosts, and ectoparasites, which live and feed on the outside of the body of their host • Examples of endoparasites include flukes, tapeworms, fungi, bacteria, and protozoa. Ectoparasites include ticks and lice, plants, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi. Plants and animals typically act as hosts.
trophic levels and definitions	• Primary Producers - plants, algae, and some bacteria) • Herbivores—animals that feed solely on plants—make up the second trophic level. • Predators that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger predators are present, they represent still higher trophic levels. • Organisms that feed at several trophic levels (for example, grizzly bears that eat berries and salmon) are classified at the highest of the trophic levels at which they feed. • Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil.
What percentage is passed from one trophic level to the next?	• On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the next level
temperate deciduous forest	dominates the landscape around the southern Great Lakes is characterized by broad-leafed trees that are deciduous, meaning they lose their leaves each fall and remain dormant during winter, when hard freezes would endanger leaves.
temperate grassland	Traveling westward from the Great Lakes, temperature differences between winter and summer become more extreme, rainfall diminishes, and we find temperate grasslands(Figure 4.19). This is because the limited precipitation in the Great Plains region west of the Mississippi River supports grasses more easily than trees. Also known as steppe or prairie, temperate grasslands were once widespread in much of North and South America and central Asia.
temperate rainforest	A biome consisting of tall coniferous trees; cooler and less species-rich than tropical rainforest and milder and wetter than temperate deciduous forest.
tropical rainforest	A biome characterized by year-round rain and uniformly warm temperatures. Found in Central America, South America, Southeast Asia, west Africa, and other tropical regions. Tropical rainforests have dark, damp interiors; lush vegetation; and highly diverse biotic communities. Fewest nutrients in soil of all biomes.
savana	A biome characterized by grassland interspersed with clusters of acacias and other trees. Savanna is found across parts of Africa (where it was the ancestral home of our species), South America, Australia, India, and other dry tropical regions.
tundra	tundra A biome that is nearly as dry as desert but is located at very high latitudes along the northern edges of Russia, Canada, and Scandinavia. Extremely cold winters with little daylight and moderately cool summers with lengthy days characterize this landscape of lichens and low, scrubby vegetation.
boreal forest	A biome of northern coniferous forest that stretches in a broad band across much of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and Scandinavia. Also known as taiga, boreal forest consists of a limited number of species of evergreen trees, such as black spruce, that dominate large regions of forests interspersed with occasional bogs and lakes.
chaparral	A biome consisting mostly of densely thicketed evergreen shrubs occurring in limited small patches. Its “Mediterranean” climate of mild, wet winters and warm, dry summers is induced by oceanic influences. In addition to ringing the Mediterranean Sea, chaparral occurs along the coasts of California, Chile, and southern Australia.

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