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| Question | Answer |
| Explain the Transactional Model. | Human stress is a mismatch between the perceived demands of a situation and one's perceived ability to cope. There are individual differences in how people perceive and react to stress. |
| What three distinct parts make up the General Adaption Syndrome? | Alarm Resistance Exhaustion |
| What happens during the 'alarm' part of the GAS? | We have the 'fight or flight' reaction; resources are channeled away from organs such as the digestive system towards more immediate muscular and emotional needs. As stress related hormones rise, heart and breathing increases & energy reserves are mobilized. |
| What happens during the 'Resistance' part of the GAS? | As we become use to stress levels we become more resistant to stress and illness however stress hormones and bodily arousal remain high. |
| What happens during the 'Exhaustion' part of the GAS? | Our bodies run out of stress hormones, we are no longer able to resist stress. Parts of the body can break down and we can suffer from stress related illnesses. |
| Outline the Sympathetic-Adrenomedullary Pathway. | .Stressor noticed .Hypothalamus activates sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system .Sympathetic arousal increases heart rate and blood pressure, slows digestion and mobilizes fats and sugars .Adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones which maintain sympathetic arousal |
| Outline the Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal axis | .Stressor noticed .Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland .Pituitary gland releases andrenocorticotrophic throph and adrennocortio hormone. .Adrenal cortex releases corticosteriods into blood stream .Liver releases energy and immune system is suppressed. |
| What are two criticism of Seyle's work? | 1) Carried out on animals which lack cognitive awareness of their situation, this makes it difficult to generalize. 2)Stress related illness is now thought to be caused by long-term increase in,rather than the using up of, stress hormones such as cortisol which can damage the body. |
| What is the function of the white blood cells 'Leukocytes' | To provide non-specific or natural immunity by attacking and ingesting any invading bacteria or viruses they come across. These cells include: phagocytes, macrophages and natural killer cells. |
| What is the function of the white blood cells 'lymphocytes'? | They are responsible for mounting a specific immune response to a foreign particle (antigen). They can be divided into two classes: T cells and B cells. |
| What are the purposes of T and B cells? | T cells mature in the Thymus gland and are responsible for cell based immunity. B cells mature in the Bone marrow and are responsible for anti-body based, blood stream (humoral) immunity. |
| What are the three forms of T cells? | Killer T cells: Seek out & destroy foreign & infected cells Memory T cells: Have a system that remembers the chemical characteristics of antigens so if they encounter them again they respond faster & more effectively. Helper T cells respond to infection by stimulating increased production of both T and B lymphocytes. |
| How do the effects of stress on the immune system result in infection? | Physiological changes during a stress reaction act to direct resources away from the immune system making it less effective so infection is likely. |
| What is an indirect effect of stress on the immune system? | High levels of corticosteriods during chronic stress inhibit immune cell functioning. |
| How does stress effect inflammatory disorders? | Chronic stress effects the immune systems ability to deal with pre-existing inflammatory disorders such as eczema . These conditions get worse. |
| How did Laudenslager et al (1983) test response to stress? | -Gave rats escapable shocks, inescapable shocks or no shock -Re exposed rats to shock 24 hours later -Challenged their immune system with an antigen -The number of lymphocytes produced was reduced in the inescapable shock group |
| Outline the Cohen et al's (1993) study into how general life stress effects vulnerability to the common cold virus | 394 healthy participants asked to complete a questionnaire assessing their number of life events in the last year and rating of stress and negative emotions. Participants were exposed to the cold virus and 82% became infected. 7 days later the number of clinical colds were measured. People who reported high levels of stress were more likely to develop the common cold. |
| Outline Kiecolt-Glaser et al's (1984) study into naturalistic life stressors on measures of immune function. | The level of NK cell activity recorded in 75 medical students one month before exams and during the exam period. Activity was reduced in times of high stress. There was greater reduction in students experiencing social isolation. |
| What is the name of Holmes and Rahe's (1967) scale? | Social Readjustment Rating Scale |
| Outline the SRRS. | Death set at an arbitrary value of 100, called a life change unit. All other life events are ranked relative to this. |
| What does Kanner's Daily Hassles scale tell us about effect small, persistent stressors? | The effect of daily hassles can give a more serious stress reaction, such as anxiety and depression, than rare major life events. |
| Name the four main sources of workplace stress. | 1) Environment 2) Home-Work Interface 3) Workload 4) Control (Decision Latitude) |
| Outline Evan et al's (2000) study stress and the work environment. | 40 clerical workers assigned for 3 hours to either a quite office or one with low level office noise. Workers in noisy office experienced higher levels of stress, made 40% less attempts to solve an unsolvable puzzle and made less ergonomic changes to their stations. |
| Outline Geer and Maisel's (1973) experiment into control and stress. | Showed participants slides depicting violent deaths. One group could stop the slide show by pressing a button the other could not. Stress was measure by galvanic skin response, the group with no control has higher GSR's. |
| What did Steptoe (2004) find out about workload and stress? | Participants with the highest levels of over commitment at work had cortisol levels an average of 22% higher than those with the lowest levels. Systolic blood pressure was an average of 7mm higher among over stressed participants. |
| Describe type A behavior | Aggressive, competitive, tense, time conscious, generally hostile |
| Describe type B behaviour | Easy going, non-aggressive, non-competative |
| What link did Rosenman et al (1976) find between personality type and coronary heart disease? | 69% of the 257 heart attacks were in type A participants. |
| What are some methodological issues in Rosenman's study? | -Culturally and gender specific, can't not be generalized. -Real life studies don't have control over variables. -Type A behavior is a western concept |
| Dembroski et al (1989) found that only people who exhibit negative behaviours such as chronic hostility are twice as likely to suffer CHD. What reason is suggested for this? | Hormones produced during hostility may do some physical damage or that hostile people do not maintain good health. |
| What are the 'three C's' in Kobasa's Hardiness questionnaire? | Control Commitment Challenge |
| What does Kobasa's research tell us about type A behaviour? | That certain types of type A characteristics may actually protect against the effects if stress. |
| What two coping strategies did Carver's COPE scale (1989) show? | 1) Problem focused coping 2) Emotion focused coping |
| Outline Problem focused coping | Tackles the source of stress using a problem solving approach |
| Outline emotion focused coping | Tackles the emotional distress associated with stress, eg. venting, drinking ect... |
| How do the coping styles vary between genders? | Stone and Neal (1984) found that women tend to use emotion focused coping while men tend to use problem focused coping. |
| Tenan et al (2000) looked at daily coping styles in patients with chronic pain. What did they find? | Patients tended to use both styles and the style used one day depended on it's effectiveness the previous day. |
| Outline Cognitive Behavioural Therapy | CBT is based on the understanding that a person's perception of a stressful situation and their perceived ability to cope may be inaccurate. Psychologists identify faulty styles in thinking which leads patients to overestimate the demands of a situation and to underestimate their ability to cope. |
| Outline Meichenbaun's Stress Inoculation Therapy (1985) | Identify sources of stress in clients life. Encouraged to keep a diary of stressful events. Taught skills to apply to real life stressful situations while the therapist monitors success and failure. |
| Outline Hardiness Training (Kobasa 1982) | Three stages = Focusing, Reconstruction, Self Improvement. Clients trained to spot signs of stress, they reconstruct a past event a think about how they could have dealt with it better, trained to believe they can cope with future stress. Build their way up to the most stressful challenges. |
| How do Bensodiazepines work? | Increases brain levels of an inhibitory neurotransmitter called GABA. As Gabba increases it reduces the output of a range of excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain, making the person feel calmer. |
| How do Beta Blockers work? | Beta Blockers block beta adrenergic receptors and prevent stress hormones binding. |
| What are two weaknesses of drug therapy? | 1) They do not remove the stressor so physical symptoms return once treatment stops. 2)All drugs have side effects and create dependency. |
| Outline Biofeedback | Electrodes attached to the client which feed into a small monitoring box that translates a persons responses into a tone that varies in pitch (or a light or line) The therapist leads the person in relaxation exercises and through trial and error they learn to identify and control stress. |
| How did Sherif's (1936) study into conformity demonstrate internalization? | Individuals asked how far a stationary light moved in a dark room and then asked as a group. The group formed a new estimate different from each individual. |
| How did Asch (1951) show what he believed to be true conformity (going along with a group because they want to be accepted)? | Recruited 123 male students to take part in a task of 'visual perception' (line experiment). His confederates gave the wrong answer 12/18 times. About 1/3 of participants conformed. |
| Name two Ethical issues with Asch's experiment. | 1) Deception used 2)Some stress caused |
| What % was conformity in Crutchfield's 'imagine pressure' conformity experiment? (1955) | 30% |
| Why can Asch's results not be generalized? | The experiment was conducted in the early 1950's in the USA so cannot be generalized to other times and places. Nicholson replicates the experiment in 1985 and found lower levels of conformity. |
| The experiment has been replicated in 13 countries with vary results. How do Psychologists believe culture influences these results? | In Individualist cultures high value is placed on individual freedom, self reliance and individual responsibility. In Collectivist cultures collective responsibility, group cooperation and collective effort is important. |
| Eagly and Carli (1981) found that male researchers were more likely to find higher levels of conformity in women than female researchers. How did Sistrunk and McDavid explain this? | -Male and Female participants asked to identify objects under group pressure. -Male conformity highest when identifying traditionally female objects and visa versa. -Neutral items had similar levels of conformity |
| What are the three types of conformity? | -Internalization -Compliance -Identification |
| Outline Zimbardo's controversial prison experiment. | 24 (mentally stable) male student volunteers randomly allocated prisoner or guard. Gaurds told to 'keep prisoners under control with no physical violence'. Guards locked prisoners in cells, confiscated their blankets, force fed one and locked him in a cupboard. The experiment was cut short. |
| What did Savin (1973) claim was an ethical issue with Zimbardo's experiment? | That the benefits from the experiment do not outweigh the distress caused to participants. |
| Haslam and Reicher replicated Zimbardo's experiment in 2002, this time 'guards' were uncomfortable exercising power and didn't form group identity. How does Zimbardo explain this? | That participants were more streetwise in the modern experiment and were aware they were being filmed. |
| How do Deutch and Gerard (1955) explain conformity? | As a 'dual-process dependency model'. This suggest people conform because they depend on others for social approval and information. |
| What is Normative and Informational influence? | Normative = the need to be accepted or to belong Informational = the need to gain information |
| Tajfel and Turner (1979) claim that a person has a personal identity as well as multiple social identities. How do Hogg and Vaughan (2002) describe this? | Social identity is a persons self-concept derived from perceived membership of social groups. |
| What is the 'meta-contrast principle' | The tendency to maximize perceived differences between a person's own 'group' and another group. |
| How did Milgram (1963) look into the 'situation determinants' of obedience. | -Participants assigned the role of teacher -Fake participants given the role of learner -Participants told by a scientist in a lab coat to administer shocks (up to 450W) when the learner failed to match a pair of words. -Participants objected but 65% went on the administer the lethal dose. (shocks and screams were fake) |
| How did institutional context effect the obedience rate in Milgram's experiment? | When the experiment was moved to a down-town office rather than a prestigious university obedience dropped to 47.5% |
| How did remote authority effect obedience in Milgram's experiment? | When the experimenter left the room and gave orders by telephone obedience dropped to 20.5% |
| How did a peer administering the shocks effect the obedience in Milgram's experiment? | The naive participant reads the word pairs while an actor 'teacher' administers the shock. Obedience rose to 92.5% |
| What criticism did Orne and Hollands have about Milgram's experiment? | It lacked internal validity: Participants succumbed to Deanne characteristic. They didn't think shocks were real and played along with it. It lacked external validity: the elaborate deception was unlike anything in real life. |
| How did Sheridan and King prove that internal validity was not affecting the participants in Milgram's experiment. | They replicated the experiment using a real puppy and real shocks. It yelped and struggled but participants carried on obeying even though some of them were crying. |
| How did Hoffling prove that external validity did not affect obedience? | Got a fake doctor to phone a hospital nurse and ask them to administer 3x the maximum dose of a drug. This broke many rules but 21/22 nurses obeyed. |
| Explain Darley's 'moral conversion'. | Believes evil is latent in all of us. As people get use to 'evil' acts they can be asked to carry out more depraved ones until they can torture with no empathy or remorse. He believed that Milgram's experiment could have started participants on the road to evil. |
| How did Mandell (1998) argue that atrocities are not committed simply by following orders and that such thinking ignores important factors such as personal gain? | During WWII prison camp guards would often torture and kill Jews without their supervisors present. They were not inhibited by seeing the suffering of their victims. They would often continue killing even when offered the chance to stop. |
| How did Milgram argue Darley and Mandel's criticisms? | -Arranged for psychiatrists to interviews a sample of participants to asses for psychological damage. -Pointed out that his study could not provide accurate explanations for the actions of Nazi's during the war and that people must be careful not to generalize. |
| What are some situational factors affecting obedience? | -Legitimate authority -Gradual commitment -Contractual obligation -The agentic state -Buffers |
| Explain what Milgram means by the 'agentic state'? | We operate on two levels; autonomous (acting independently), or agentic (acting as an agent of others). We undergo an agentic shift in some circumstances because we have been trained from an early age to obey authority figures. |
| What is an example of a 'buffer'? | Launching a missile from a room with a button so the person does not have to see the devastation they have caused. |
| How did Adorno (1950) believe an 'authoritarian personality' was developed? | In early childhood as a result of rigid, strict parents. These people were hostile to authority but were extremely obedient to people in positions of power.They would often project their hostility towards their parents onto a safe target. |
| The Hutus and Tutis war in Rowanda is an example of what? | Inter group hostility using the meta contrast principle. |
| How does the need to be an individual affect obedience? | Snyder and Fromkin (1980) 'de-individuated' a group of students by telling them that their beliefs and attitudes were identical to 10,000 others and individuated a second group. In an Asch-like experiment the first group were less likely to conform. |
| How did Doubman test the need to remain in control using participants with high and low needs from control? (Influence is seen as a threat to personal freedom in people with high needs of control) | After working in pairs to solve a puzzle all participants were told they were average at solving puzzles while their partners were better. They were given hints on how to go better. Participants with high need for control were irritated while low needs were grateful. |
| Julian Rotter's Locus of Control (1966) states that someone can have an external locus of control, and internal locus of control or fall somewhere between the two. Describe an external and internal locus. | External locus: belief that his/her behavior is guided by fate, luck or other external forces/circumstances. Internal locus: belief that his/her behavior is guided by his/her personal decisions and efforts. |
| How did Kohlberg find that moral reasoning affected obedience? | Participants with a more advanced level of moral reasoning were more able to resist the experimenters verbal 'prods' and showed higher levels of dissonance. |
| What did David Levy (1990) find made an effective dissenter? | Many people believe it is okay to disobey as long as the social conventions or courtesy and respect are followed. |
| How does Moscovici (1985) suggest minorities can be influential? | -Must be consistent in their views -Must avoid dogmatism (listen to others) -Must use moderate language |
| How do Hogg and Vaugh suggest that minorities can be influential? (1995) | -Must act out of principle not self interest -Must make sacrifices for their cause -Must be similar to the majority in terms of class, age or gender -Must advocate in line with the spirit of the times. |
| Explain 'social cryptoamnesia'. | The ideas of a minority may be too radical when first aired but as society 'catches up' they are accepted. The source of the idea becomes dissociated. |
| How did Mosovici (1969)show that consistency does have an effect on a minorities influence? | Brought together four real participants and two confederate. They were shown 36 slides, all shades of blue. When the 'minority' named all the slides 'green' 8% of the 'majority' agreed. When they named 24/36 'green' only 1.25% of the majority agreed. |
| In Zimbardo's book 'The Lucifer Effect' (2007) he suggests adopting a ten step program to resist unwanted influence. What are these 10 steps? | 1) Admit mistakes (do not justify actions) 2) Be mindful (evaluate words and actions) 3) Be responsible for your own actions 4) Assert you individuality 5) Respect just authority, rebel against others 6) Balance the need for group acceptance with value of your own identity 7) Be frame-vigilant (mindful of how things are described) 8) Develop a balanced time perceptive 9) Don't sacrifice freedom for the illusion of security 10) Oppose unjust systems |
| Define ''abnormal behaviour'. | Behaviour is abnormal if it goes against approve of and expected ways of behaving and is therefore a relative concept. |
| 'Failure to function' is a more practical definition. Names the characteristics listed by Resennan and Seligman of abnormal behaviour. | -Observer discomfort -Unpredictability -Irrationality -Maladaptive behabiour |
| What are some limitations of viewing behaviour as 'abnormal and/or failure to function' | Context is important (prisoner on vs hunger strike vs eating disorder ) Some disorders may not impair ability to function |
| In the UK African Carribean immigrants are 7x more likely to be diagnosed as schizophrenic than white people. (Cochrane 1997). It cannot be explained biologically so what could be an explanation? | It is not found in their country of origin so it could be due to the stress of living in a foreign country, a bias diagnosis or facing a hostile culture. |
| What difference are there between genders, in deviation from ideal mental health? | -Howell (1981) says women in Britain are predisposed to depression because of our culture. Cochrane (1995) puts it down to childhood abuse and gender socialization. Men are more likely to suffer from alcohol abuse and anti-social disorder. Bennet (1955) blames this on gender norms. (the role they are expected to fulfill alienates them from seeking psychological help.) |
| Cochrane and Stopes-Roe (1980) found lower class was linked to higher incident of psychiatric problems. What explanations have been offered? | -Johnstone (1989) found clinicians less willing to diagnose middle class people as mentally ill with the same symptoms of lower class people. -Lower class living conditions may lead to mental illness due to stress. -The Social Drift Hypothesis |
| What is the 'Social Drift Hypothesis'? | It proposes that mentally ill people move to poorer areas because their illness inhibits them from certain things (such as keeping a job) and not that poverty causes the disorder (Cochrane 1983) |
| What are some physical causes of mental disorders? | -Brain damage -Biochemistry -Genes |
| Describe Biochemistry as a cause of mental disorders. | Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transfer impulses from one neuron to another. There are hundreds in the brain including dopamine which is linked to schizophrenia and serotonin, a lack of which leads to depression. Hormones are also implicated (cortisol elevated when stressed) |
| Describe Genes as a cause for mental illness. | Some mental disorders have a strong genetic basis. The closer the genetic relationship, the higher the risk. Shield (1978) found that a twin is 45% likely to develop their twins mental disorder while ti is only 9% for ordinary siblings. |
| Name a weakness of the biological approach. | It cannot always determine the cause. Someone could inherit a faulty gene but environmental triggers can also reduce serotonin levels. (Shown in moneys when separated form their group by Watson et al) |
| Describe the diathesis stress model. | It includes a genetic predisposition (diathesis) and an environmental trigger which interact to produce the disorder. |
| What three main interacting parts did Freud believe personality was made up of? | ID-Unconscious, pleasure principle, raw animal instincts EGO-Conscious, reality principle, delays gratification of instincts until appropriate. SUPEREGO-conscience, internalizes morals and values of society, causes guilt when we do wrong and pride when good. |
| The three parts of our personality can face conflict. According to Freud there are four main ways that the unconscious mind turn this conflict into an acceptable form. | -Parapraxes (slips of the tongue) -Dreams (manifest content of latent content(real worry)) -Neurotic symptoms -Defense mechanisms |
| Name a strength and weakness of the psycho dynamic approach. | S = Tries to find the cause rather than just treating the symptoms. W = Psychoanalysis does not work for disorder such as schizophrenia & impossible to scientifically prove as no evidence |
| What are the three main tyres of the behavioral approach? | -Classical conditioning -Operant conditioning -Social learning |
| Outline Watson and Rayner's conditioning of 'Little Albert' | -Albert showed no fear of a white rat placed in front of him -W&R made a loud noise behind his head by striking a metal bar with a hammer, making him cry. -Associated the rat with the noise and began to fear it. |
| When we perform a behaviour we receive either, positive re-reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment. How does Mower (1947) believe phobias can be taught this way? | That they are maintained by negative re-reinforcement (avoidance learning) |
| What is 'vicarious reinforcement'? (Bandura 1969) | Learning behaviours indirectly by watching other be rewarded for this behaviour. |
| Name two strengths of the social learning theory. | 1) Provided effective treatments for some disorders. 2)Overcomes labeling someone as ill or abnormal and focuses on adaptive/maladpaptive behaviour |
| Name to weaknesses of the social learning theory. | 1) Too simplistic, reductionist. 2) Deterministic, sees stimulus and response with no room for conscious choice. |
| Outline the cognitive approach which is one of the most widely used approaches. | Emotional problems can be attributed to distortion in our thinking process (cognitions), such as negative thoughts, irrational beliefs and illogical behaviours. This thinking is thought to be automatic and unconscious, it is known as 'cognitive bias'. |
| Explain Ellis' 'irrational-emotive model'. (ABC model) | It is not the event which causes depression but the person's irrational interpretation of the event. A=Activating event B=Beliefs C=emotional Consequences |
| Outline the Temple-Wisconsin study of cognitive vulnerability to depression. | -Followed a group of students whose thinking styles were assessed every few months. -17% of students who scored high on tests of negative thinking went on to experience depression vs 1% of low scorers. This suggest negative cognitive style precedes depression. |
| Evaluate the cognitive approach. | -Clinically useful and effective -Clear supporting evidence -Correlation between symptoms and maladaptive cognition -Singular, narrow focus as does not take biology or genes into account Negative thinking may be a more accurate view of society -Overemphasis on the present |
| What is the aim of psychosurgery? | To disconnect the thinking/planning part of the brain (frontal lobes) from the emotional part (the amygdala) |
| Who performed the first prefrontal lobotomy, a procedure which killed 6% of patients and caused adverse changes in personality and social functioning? | Egas Moniz (1935) |
| Who invented the ice pick lobotomy? | Walter Freeman (1942) |
| How is psychosurgery carried out today? | Radioactive imaging is used to pinpoint the targeted nerves (often cauterized or destroyed by radioactive pellets) leaving the rest of the prefrontal lobes intact. |
| Name a two weaknesses of psychosurgery. | 1) Irreversible damage, unpredictable personality change 2) Patient may be too ill to give informed consent |
| In 1933 a diabetic schizophrenic was accidentally given an overdose of insulin, causing a hypoglycemic seizure. Once he recovered his schizophrenia had improved. Which therapy did this lead to? | Electro-convulsive therapy |
| How was ECT dangerous when first invented? | Convulsions were so powerful that they caused broken bones and tongue lacerations. Afterwards patients often suffered memory loss and disorientation. |
| How is ECT used more safely today? | Muscle relaxants are used to stop flailing and the shock (70-130v) is applied unilaterally. (to one side of the brain) for around half a second, to minimise memory loss. |
| Name two weaknesses of ECT as a treatment for depression. | 1) Only useful short term, (Sackheim, 1988): 60-70% of patients improved but a large proportion became depressed again. 2) Fears it may have been used to punish or control patients in mental hospitals. |
| How do anti-depressants work? | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors block the reuptake of serotonin at the synapse (junction between two nuerones) increasing serotonin levels and improving mood. |
| How do anti-psychotics (major tranquilisers) work? | Phenothiazines such as chlorpromazine block dopamine receptors reducing levels of dopamine. |
| Why is clozapine often used to treat schizophrena instead of chorpromazine? | It is equally effective but with fewer side effects. |
| What was Freud's goal when using psychodynamic therapies? | to drain the 'psychic abscess' by bringing repressed conflicts into awareness so the ego can cope better with them. |
| List four classical psychoanalysis techniques. | 1) Free association 2)Analysis of dreams 3) Analysis of transference 4) Analysis of resistance |
| What is free association in psychoanalysis? | The client talks freely about whatever thoughts and feelings come to mind, regardless of how painful, personal or seemingly irrelevant they might be.This removes the normal 'censorship' of the EGO and allows the preconscious to be explored. |
| What are some weaknesses to psychoanalysis? | -Time consuming (up to three years) ans expensive -Eysenk (1952) claimed that those on the waiting list improved as much as those being treated -Not suitable for psychotic disorders |
| When is Rorschach's inkblot test used? (1992) | When diagnosing underlying thought disorder and when differentiating between psychotic and non-psychotic behaviour. |
| Outline systematic desensitisation. | Aims to present the feared objects while getting patients to relax. After enough presentation the association between the fear and the object will be lost and the phobia cured. |
| Outline flooding. | The person is in an inescapable situation with the feared object. They reach a heightened state of anxiety but eventually the fear subsides. |
| Outline Wolpe's example of flooding. (1960) | Forced a teenage girl with a phobia of cars into the back of a car and drove her around for four hours. Her fear reaches hysterical heights but then receded. The fear completely disappeared. SD is used because this method raises ethical issues. |
| Outline Systematic Desensitisation step by step using a phobia of dogs as an example. | -Client lists situations from least to most fearful (looking at a picture of a puppy to stroking an adult dog) -They are trained in deep relaxation techniques -The client imagines the feared situation while practicing relaxation -They move up through the situations, returning to a lower level if necessary |
| Outline Aversion Therapy using an alcohol addiction as an example. | -Uses classical conditioning to instill fear of the alcohol -The therapist would get them to drink alcohol while and take an emetic drug -Eventually the association is acquired |
| Why does aversion therapy not always work with addictions. (alcohol) | The person's desire to drink is so strong that extinction takes place, with the knowledge that the sickness will subside. |
| Outline Ayllon and Azrin's token economy | Chronic schizophrenics were given tokens for ward work and good self care. The tokens could be exchanged for special privileges. In all cases, behaviour improved. |
| Paul and Lents (1977) used a token economy paired with social learning (patients saw other patients rewarded for certain behaviours). What did they find? | That patients using nueroleptics dropped to 11% after the token economy while in a group under routine care, 100% remained on drugs. |
| What are two weakness to the token economy? | 1) Often behaviour returns in the outer community where there is no token economy. 2) It is reductionist - it treats behaviours but not the underlying cause. |
| Outline rational emotive behavioural therapy (Ellis 1962) | The therapist restructures the clients faulty belief system and substitutes 'positive self talk' for irrational self statements. They dispute false beliefs through rational confrontation and teach the client to do so themselves. |
| Outline Beck et al's cognitive reconstructuring therapy (1979) | Gently point out errors of logic and contradictory evidence, encouraging patients to 'reality check' for themselves. Irrational beliefs are converted into hypotheses which can be tested and falsified through experience. Pleasurable activities are schedules for reinforcement. |
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