2917355
Description
Flashcards by Drew Whalen, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Drew Whalen
over 9 years ago
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| Question | Answer |
| Nervous System | - A high speed communication system which delivers information to and from the brain and spinal cord all over the body |
| Sensors | - Gather information from the external environment - Ex: Sense Organs |
| Conductors | - Carry information from sensors to modulators or from modulators to effectors - Ex: Nerves |
| Modulators | - Interpret sensory information and send information to effectors - Ex: Brain & Spinal Cord |
| Effectors | - Part of the body that responds because of information from a modulator - Ex: Muscles & Glands |
| Central Nervous System | - Receives sensory information and initiates control - Brain & Spinal Cord |
| Skull | - Hard casing that protects the brain |
| Vertebrae | - Protects Spinal cord |
| Meninges | - Three protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord - They are filled with cerebrospinal fluid |
| Ventricles | - Cavities in the brain which are filled with cerebrospinal fluid |
| Grey Matter | - Brownish-grey nerve tissue consisting of mainly cell bodies within the brain and spinal cord |
| White Matter | - The white nerve tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting of mostly myelinated neurons |
| Peripheral Nervous System | - The nerves that enter and leave the brain and spinal cord |
| Autonomic Nervous System | - The part of the nervous system that relays information to the internal organs that are not under the conscious control of the individual - Two parts Sympathetic & Parasympathetic |
| Sympathetic | - Speeds up muscle activity and activities in times of stress - Fight or Flight response |
| Parasympathetic | - The network of nerves that counteract the sympathetic nervous system to slow down heart rate and relax muscles |
| Somatic Nervous System | - The part of the nervous system that relays information to and from skin and skeletal muscles that are under conscious control of the individual |
| Brain | - An organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates - Functions as the coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity |
| Cerebrum | - Largest part of the brain - Responsible for complex behavior and intelligence & interprets sensory inputs and initiates motor response - Divided into 4 lobes: Frontal, Temporal, parietal & occipital lobe |
| Frontal Lobe | - Contains primary motor area, premotor area, Bronca's area (Motor Speech), and pre-frontal area (Association) |
| Temporal Lobe | - Contains auditory association area, primary auditory area and sensory speech (Wenche's area) |
| Parietal Lobe | - Contains primary somatosensory area, somatosensory association area and primary taste area |
| Occipital Lobe | - Contains primary visual area and visual association area |
| Corpus Callosum | - Layer of white matter which connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex -transmits between the two hemispheres really quickly |
| Cerebellum | - The part of the brain that is responsible for muscle coordination - 50% of the brains neurons, 10% of the space |
| Midbrain | - A short segment of the brain stem between the cerebellum and pons - Involved in sight & hearing |
| Pons | - Contains bundles of Axons traveling between the cerebellum and the rest of the CNS - Regulates breathing with the Medulla Oblongata - Has reflex centers involved in head movement |
| Medulla Oblongata | - Involved in: Controlling heart rate, vomiting, adjusting blood pressure, hiccuping, controlling breathing & swallowing |
| Thalamus | - sensory relay center of the brain that governs the flow of information from all other parts of the nervous system |
| Hypothalamus | - The part of the brain that acts as the main control center for the autonomic nervous system, reestablishes homeostasis and controls the endocrine hormone system |
| Neurons | - Can live for up to 100 years - Don not undergo cell division after adolescence (But some can be repaired) - Utilize aerobic cellular respiration (oxygen) to produce ATP for cell processes and Na+/K+ pump |
| Sensory Neurons | - Take information from a receptor (such as pain or light) to he CNS via interneurons |
| Interneurons | - Connect sensory neurons to the CNS and the CNS to the motor neurons |
| Motor Neurons | - Receive information from the CNS via interneurons an carries it to an effector |
| Dendrites | - Sites on nerve cells that receive signals from other neurons |
| Cell Body | - The main part of a neuron - Contains the nucleus and other organelles |
| Axon | - Long cylindrical extension of a neuron's cell body that can range from 1mm to 1m in length - Transmits impulses along its length towards the next neuron |
| Schwann Cells | - Insulating cells around the axons of some nerve cells in the PNS |
| Myelin Sheath | - The fatty layer around the axon - Speeds up nervous transmissions - Unmyelinated neurons: grey matter - Myelinated neurons: white matter |
| Terminal Branches | - The end of the axon that branches off and comes in close contact with the dendrites of neighboring neurons - Contains terminal vesicles |
| Terminal Vesicles | - On the ends o the terminal endings - Contains neurotransmitters which are released during stimulous |
| Terminal Vesicles | - On the ends of the terminal endings - Contains neurotransmitters which are releases during stimulous |
| Polarization | - Also referred to as "At Rest" - When the outside of the neuron is positively charged compared go the inside - Neuron is not being stimulated |
| Depolarization | - Can not occur unless there is enough stimulus - The potassium ion channels close and the sodium ion gates open and Na+ goes in but more K+ goes out and neutralizes the neuron and the continues down the axon and onto other neurons |
| Repolarization | - After the Na+ channels open, K+ channels reopen to cause K+ to move out and the Na+ channels close - The original concentrations are restored by pumping Na+ out and K+ in |
| Synapsis | - The junction between a neuron and another neuron or muscle cell |
| Neurotransmitter | - Chemicals that are secreted by neurons to stimulate motor neurons and central nervous system neurons |
| Excitory response | - Process in which the neurotransmitter reaches the dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron and a wave of depolarization is generated by the resultant opening of sodium gated channels |
| Inhibitory Response | - Process in which the postsynaptic neuron is made more negative on the inside to raise the threshold of stimulus |
| Acetylcholine | - Primary neurotransmitter of both the somatic and the parasympathetic nervous system - Can be excitatory or inhibitory - Excites skeletal muscles but inhibits cardiac muscles |
| Noradrenaline | - Also known as Norepinephine - Primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system - Excitatory |
| Glutamate | - An amino acid - Found in the cerebral cortex - 75% of all the excitatory transmission in the brain |
| Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) | - Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain |
| Dopamine | - Neurotransmitter that elevates mood and controls skeletal muscles |
| Serotonin | - Formed from Trytophan, an amino acid - Involved in alertness, sleepiness, thermoregulation and mood |
| Depressants | - Slows down the CNS - Relaxes and causes people to feel less pain, also decreases coordination and movement - Ex: Alcohol, heroin, morphine, Valium & anesthetics - Anesthetics can be general or local |
| Stimulants | - Speeds up the CNS - Increases energy and confidence - Ex: Caffeine, cocaine, Ecstasy (MDMD) and nicotine |
| Hallucinogens | - Cause an altered state or reality - Affect memory or pleasure centers as well as perception - Ex: Marijuana & LSD (acid) |
| Multiple Sclerosis | - Autoimmune disorder, no cure - The body's own immune cells attack the myelin and they become inflamed or damaged - Symptoms vary Ex: blurred or double vision, slurred speech, loss of coordination, weakness and seizures |
| Alzheimer's Disease | - Degenerative disorder, no cure & limited treatment - Affects the brain and causes dementia (impairment of intellectual functions: Memory & orientation) - The result of deposits of a protein, amyloid, distrupts nerve cell communication - Acetylcholine levels drop |
| Parkinson's Disease | - Chronic movement disorder caused by gradual decline of the neutrons that produce dopamine, no cure but symptoms can be treated with drugs or surgery - Symptoms include: Slight tremors & stiffness of limbs on one side of the body then tremors spread to both sides and movement becomes slow |
| Meningitis | - A bacterial or viral infection of the meninges - Bacterial meningitis is fatal but there are some vaccines symptoms include: Headache, fever, stiff neck, light sensitivity, vomiting and drowsiness - Tests done via spinal tap |
| Huntington's Disease (Huntington's Cholera) | - A lethal disorder in which the brain progressively deteriorates over a period of 15 years, no cure, symptoms appear after age 35 - Causes progressive decrease in mental and emotional abilities and loss of control of major muscle movements - Symptoms include: Memory loss, dementia, involuntary twitching, chorea (jerky movements) and personality changes |
| MRI | - Magnetic Resonance Imaging - Uses a combination of large magnets, radio frequencies and computers to produce a detailed images of the brain and other structures |
| EEG | - Electroencephalogram - Electrodes are attached to the forehead and scalp and brain waves are recorded - Printout of brain waves help diagnose certain disorders like sleep disorders and locating tumors |
| CAT Scan | - Computerized Tomography Scan - Takes a series of the cross-sectional X-rays to create a computer generated 3D image of a part of the body |
| PET Scan | - Radiation is used to produce a colored 3D images of body function and metabolism |
| Eye | - Two global organs in the head through which people and vertebrate animals see |
| Iris | - The muscle that adjusts the pupil to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye |
| Pupil | - The aperture in the middle of the iris of the eye - The size of the aperture can be adjusted to control the amount of light |
| Lens | - A transparent bi-convex body situated behind the iris of the eye to focus an image on the retina |
| Retina | - The innermost layer of the eye - Contains rods and cones bipolar cells and ganglion cells |
| Sclera | - The thick white outer layer that gives the eye its shape |
| - Cornea | - The clear part of the sclera at the at the front of the eye |
| Choroid Layer | - The middle layer of the eye which absorbs light and prevents internal reflection - This layer forms the iris at the front of the eye |
| Rods | - Photoreceptors in the eye - More sensitive to the light than cones but unable to distinguish colour |
| Cones | - Colour receptors in the eye - (red, gree, blue) |
| Fovea Centralis | - Concentration of cones on the retina located directly behind the center of the lens - Vision is more acute here |
| Optic Nerve | - Conducts information received from rods and cones to the brain for interpretation |
| Blind Spot | - An area on the retina where there are no rods and cones present - Located where blood vessels enter the eye |
| Cataracts | - Cloudy or opaque areas on the lens of the eye that increases in size over time and can lead to blindness if not medically treated |
| Glaucoma | - Build-up of the aqueous humor in the that irreversibly damages the nerve fibers responsible for peripheral vision |
| Myopia | - Near-sightedness, or difficulty in seeing things that are far away - The condition is caused by too strong ciliary muscles or a too-long eyeball |
| Hyperopia | - Far-sightedness, or difficulty in seeing near objects - This condition is caused by weak ciliary muscles or a too short eyeball |
| Astigmatism | - Abnormality in the shape of the cornea or lens that results in uneven focus |
| Corrective Lenses | - Near-sighted: The images focuses in front of the retina, concave lenses - Far-sighted: The images focuses behind the retina, convex lenses - Astigmatism: Unique and may require combinations of convex and/or concave lenses to bring images into focus |
| Laser Surgery #1 | - Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK): non-invasive, simple procedure - May diminish eyesight |
| Laser Surgery #2 | - LASIK surgery: More complex, some surgeries required (corneal) - May diminish eyesight |
| Corneal Transplant | - Corneas come from donors, no need to match blood types - Recovery is long but most patients do well |
| Outer Ear | - Consists of the pinna and the auditory canal |
| Auditory Canal | - Contains hairs and sweat glands, some are modified to secrete wax to trap foreign particles |
| Middle Ear | - Contains: Tympanic membrane, ossicles, round window, oval window, eustachian tube |
| Tympanic Membrane | - The eardrum - A membrane of thin skin and fibrous tissue that vibrates in response to sound waves - Located between the outer ear and the middle ear |
| Ossicles | - The group of three small bones between the eardrum and the oval window of the middle ear - Transmit sound waves from the eardrum to the inner ear - Malleus: Hammer, Incus: anvil, Stapes: Stirrup |
| Round Window | - One of the two small openings at the end of the middle ear |
| Oval Window | - Same as round except located behind the stapes |
| Eustachian Tube | - Bony passage extending from the middle ear to the nasopharynx that plays a role in equalizing air pressure on both sides of the eardrum - Yawning can cause the air to move through the tubes and the ear will "pop" |
| Inner Ear | Contains the vestibule, the semicircular canals and the cochlea |
| Vestibule | - Involved in balance and equilibrium |
| Semicircula Canal | - Three tubes involved in balance and equilibrium |
| Cochlea | - Involved in hearing - Has many parts such as: Vestibular canal, Tympanic canal, Colchlear canal, Basilar membrane, Spiral organ and Tectorial membrane |
| Vestibular Canal, Tympanic Canal, Cochlear Canal | - The three canals in the cochlea - Vestibular canal joins the tympanic canal and leads to the round window |
| Basilar membrane | - One of the two parallel membranes that comprise the organ of Corti in the inner ear - Forms the lower wall of the cochlear canal |
| Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti) | - The sensory part of the cochlea which responds to sounds - Sends information to the auditory nerve |
| Tectorial Membrane | - One of two parallel membranes that comprise the spiral organ in the inner ear - During the transmission of sound waves the basilar membrane vibrates causing the sensory hairs to flex against the tectorial mambrane |
| Nerve Deafness | - Caused by damage to hair cells in the spiral organ - hearing loss uneven, some frequencies more affected than others, cannot be reversed |
| Conduction Deafness | - Usually caused by damage to the outer ear that affects transmission to the inner ear - Not usually a total loss of hearing - Can be helped with a hearing aid |
| Ear Infections | - Caused by fluid build up behind the ear drums, common in children - Fluid builds up because of the shallow angle of the auditory tube |
| Hearing Aids | - A small device that fits in or on the ear worn by a partially deaf person to amplify sound |
| Eustachian Tube Implants | - Also called tympanostomy tube surgery - Used to treat infections - Tiny plastic tubes are placed in a slit in the eardrum relieving the pressure from the built up fluid and allowing it to drain |
| Endocrine System | - Body system that works in parallel with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis by releasing chemical hormones from various glands - Comprised of hormone producing glands and body tissue |
| Endocrine Glands | - Glands that have ductsand secrete substances such as sweat, saliva, tears, milk or digestive enzymes |
| Hormones | -Chemical signals that are sent to many parts of the body -Examples: adrenaline and noradrenaline from the neurons of the adreanal glands |
| Target Organs | -Organs that contain receptors for a particular hormone |
| Steroid Hormones | - Hormones produced from cholesterol - they have 4 carbon ring structure with different side groups and have to be carried in blood by a protein carrier (fat soluble) - Ex: Cortisol, progesterone, testosterone... - Made in the rough ER - Works by binding and entering the cell |
| Non-Steroid Hormones | - Composed of protein, peptides, or amino acids - Water soluble - Ex: Adrenaline, thyroxine, glucagon... - Does not enter cells, bonds to receptors |
| Hypothalamus | - Controls the endocrine system as well as the autonomic nervous system to maintain the body's internal environment - Produces 2 hormones: ADH and Oxytocin |
| Pituitary Gland | - Master gland - 2 Glands: Anterior lobe & Posterior lobe |
| Anterior Pituitary | - Produces: HGH, Prolactin, TSH, Adrenocorticotrophin, FSH & LH |
| Posterior Pituitary | - Stores and releases ADH & Oxytocin produced by the hypothalamus |
| Thyroid Gland | - Butterfly shaped gland between the larynx and the neck - produces Thyroxine and Calcitonin |
| Parathyroid Gland | - Produces Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
| Adrenal Gland | - Two distinct sections: Adrenal Cortex & Adrenal Medulla |
| Adrenal Cortex | - Produces glucocorticoids (cortisol), mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) and small levels of sex hormones |
| Adrenal Medulla | - Secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline - also involved in the fight or flight response |
| Pancreas | - Produces insulin and glucagon |
| Pineal Gland | - Small cone-shaped structure located deep within the brain - produces melatonin |
| Thymus Gland | Lymphatic tissue located between the lobes of the lungs and the upper chest cavity and usually disappears during puberty - Produces thymosin |
| ADH: Anti-Diuretic Hormone | - Produced in the hypothalamus - Stored and released in the posterior pituitary - Controls water levels |
| Oxytocin | - Produced in the hypothalamus and stored and released in the posterior pituitary - Triggers muscle contractions in childbirth and promotes lactation |
| HGH: Human Growth Hormone | - Somatotrophin - produced in the anterior pituitary - Controls growth |
| Prolactin | - Produced in the anterior pituitary - Stimulates mammary gland tissue and milk production - (non-steroid) |
| TSH: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone | - produced in anterior pituitary - Controls secretion of thyroxine in the thyroid gland |
| ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophin | - Produced by the anterior pituitary - Regulates production of cortisol and aldosterone in the adrenal cortex |
| FSH: Follicle Stimulating Hormone | - Produced in the anterior pituitary - Stimulates development of gametes (sperm and egg) |
| LH: Lutenizing Hormone | - Produced in the anterior pituitary - Stimulates ovulation in females - Helps stimulate testosterone production in males |
| Thyroxine | - Produced in the thyroid gland - Increases metabolic rate especially in the heart, skeletal muscle,liver and kidney - non-steroid and contains iodine |
| Calcitonin | - Produced in the thyroid gland - Causes calcium levels to drop in blood by reabsorbing it into bones |
| PTH: Parathyroid Hormone | - Produced in the parathyroid gland - Causes bones to release calcium into the blood from bones |
| Glucocorticoids | - Cortisol - Produced in the adrenal cortex - Stimulates carbohydrates synthesis, breaks down fats, and reduces immune system abilities (inflammatory response) |
| Mineralcorticoids | - Aldosterone - Produced in the adrenal cortex - Regulates water balance by increasing sodium reabsorption in the colon which causes the hypothalamus to release ADH |
| Adrenaline & Noradrenaline | - Both produced in the adrenal Medulla - Both act to increase heart rate and blood pressure - Involved in fight or flight response |
| Insulin | - Produced in the pancreas - Causes excess blood sugar to be stored as glycogen in the liver and as fat in adipose tissue |
| Glucagon | - Produced in the pancreas - Has the opposite effect of insulin - Causes glucose to be released from glycogen and fatty acids and amino acids and released into the blood stream |
| Melatonin | - Produced in the pineal gland - Involved in sleep - Has a circadian rhythm, a daily biological cycle or regular pattern - Melatonin levels increase as the day goes on, producing the feeling of sleepiness |
| Thymosin | - Produced in the thymus gland - Stimulates production and materials of lymphocytes into T-cells |
| Discovery of Insulin | - Discovered by Canadian scientists Fredrick Banting and Charles Best - Experimented on dogs and their pancreases |
| Pituitary Dwarfism | - Abnormally short stature caused by insufficient HGH production during childhood - All parts are in proportion and puberty may be delayed or not at all - Can be treated with HGH therapy during childhood |
| Gigantism | - An excess of HGH production prior to puberty - Uncontrolled growth, long bones in the skeleton - Usually caused by a tumor on the pituitary - Can be treated with surgery on the pituitary gland |
| Acromegaly | - Excess HGH production during adult years - Symptoms include excessive thickening of bone tissue - Usually caused by a tumor on the pituitary gland - Treatments: Tumor removal, drugs, etc. |
| Hyperthyroidism | - Grave's Disease - Autoimmune disorder caused by an excess of thyroxine - Anitbodies attach to TSH receptors on thyroid cells causing the thyroid to produce more thyroxine - Causes enlarged thyroid, sweating, moist skin, excess heat production and increases metabolic rate |
| Hypothyroidism | - A deficiency of thyroxine production - Causes low metabolic rate, reduces tolerance to cold temperatures, weight gain but decreased appetite, decreased mental capacity, weakness/ fatigue and so on |
| Goiter | - A swelling of the thyroid gland due to a lack of iodine - Reduced iodine means less thyroxine produced so metabolic rate decreases, and pituitary increases TSH secretions which causes the thyroid to swell - Goiters are not much of health problems thanks to "iodized salt" |
| Diabetes | - A disorder where blood sugar levels are elevated constantly - Can cause circulatory disorders, blindness and/or weight loss - Two types: Diabetes Mellitus & Type 2 Diabetes |
| Diabetes Mellitus | - Juvenile diabetes - Insulin dependent: pancreas doesn't make any insulin - Suggested to be am autoimmune disorder, body's own cells attack the pancreas and destroy the cells which make insulin |
| Type 2 Diabetes | - Adult-onset diabetes - Insulin produced but the body is less sensitive to it or it is not produced enough - 90% of all diabetes are type 2 |
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