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Description
Flashcards by Darcey Griffiths, updated 19 days ago
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Created by Darcey Griffiths
20 days ago
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| Question | Answer |
| Significance- JCL | 1892- Plessy vs Ferguson- The court argued that segregating facilities posed no problem as long as they were separate but equal. This was the foundation of the Jim Crow Laws. Education: 'Separate schools shall be maintained for the children of the white and colored races.' Mississippi Intermarriage: 'The marriage of a white person with a negro or mulatto or person who shall have one- eighth or more of 'negro blood', shall be unlawful and void. Mississippi' |
| Significance- KKK and lynching | committed: Intimidation for Black Americans who registered to vote before elections Attacked Black Americans becoming economically independent Attacked political activists Thousands lynched |
| Significance- great migration | P1- caused a rise in NAACP activism. By 1919, the NAACP had expanded to over 300 branches with a membership surge to 900,000, x10 increase from 1916. Those from the South spread awareness about the living conditions in the South. effective- increased levels of support helped the NAACP - bring change- white Americans in north= more sympathetic toward civil rights caused a significant cultural impact. |
| Significance- great migration p2 | Black migrants carried their culture with them, notably Jazz music. African American musicians - Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Fats Waller became national icons. Harlem emerged as a centre for the arts, elevating the stature of African American culture. Jazz, popular among many white Americans, was a key part of this cultural shift. This was effective-challenging stereotypes, -not inferior or incapable, increasing the likelihood of gaining support of those with more political power (WA) |
| Significance-great migration p3 | brought greater political and social power for black Americans. Oscar de Priest became Chicago's first African American alderman, second in status to a mayor, in 1915 and was the first African American U.S. congressman of the 20th century. The first African American labour union, established in 1925 secured pay increases from the Pullman Car Company. This was effective as black Americans were now in positions where they could provide a voice and make greater change for black Americans. |
| Significance-WW1- P1 | The war disrupted travel and transport and caused immigration from Europe to fall, but American industrial expansion proceeded apace. Northern employers were desperate for labour so they actively recruited black workers. Between 1915 and 1925, 1.25 million black Americans migrated from the South to the North and settled in cities such as New York, Cleveland and Detroit. |
| Significance- WW1- P2 | BA- wanted more change- fought for this- When President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany in April 1917, he had proclaimed that ‘the world must be made safe for democracy’. In July 1917, a silent parade of 15,000 African Americans in New York protested against lynching’s with signs saying ‘Mr President, why not make America safe for democracy?” |
| Significance- WW1 P3 | Harlem Hellfighters- 369th regiment- All given Croix de Guirre- immensely highest honor for bravery- and 170 additional medals of valor- challenging stereotypes |
| Significance- individuals P1 | long lasting change such as the NAACP. Booker T Washington -principal of one of the leading African American colleges at Tuskegee Alabama. He was a leading spokesman for African Americans through frequent consulting with presidents and politicians- secured northern white investment into African American education. This was efficient as Washington’s securing of investment caused the number of African Americans in teaching to increase from 68,356 to 136,925 1910-1930. However, Washington’s schools only taught practical skills instead of academic jobs- not same oppurtunities- was labelled an accommodationist-method of protest was to accept white supremacy until African Americans advanced economically and socially, reducing the impact significant individuals had on civil rights |
| Significant individuals P2 | W.E.B Du Bois was a Massachusetts born academic- graduated from Fisk university in 1885 and later returned to Harvard before becoming a professor at Atlanta. He wrote a book in 1903 titled ‘The Souls of Black Folk’. This book demanded: civil rights, an end to segregation, equality in politics and society. Du Bois formed an educated elite of African Americans 'The talented tenth' to lead the fight for equality before forming the Niagara movement in 1905 who formed the NAACP. |
| Significant individuals pt3 | Ida Wells -her friend Tom Moss was lynched- was accused of taking business from white owners. Racial injustice fueled her passion for investigative journalism into lynching. She co-owned and wrote for the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight newspaper, where she began her anti-lynching crusade. Wells also campaigned in courts against railroad car segregation in Tennessee between 1884-1887 and in 1898 she wrote to president McKinley- demanded gov intervention in southern states to stop lynching- significant- investigations attracted national attention/ revealed the scale of lynching and reasons for it. However, her campaigns did fail, limiting the amount of change of significant individuals. |
| Significance- depression- P1 | signs of stronger African American resistance to the discrimination they had suffered. The work of the NAACP, the ideas of Marcus Garvey and the impact of African American culture all played a part in the development. In Chicago, boycotts of retail stores which had refused to employ African Americans started in 1929. These boycotts proved an effective tactic in ensuring African American employment, spreading to 35 cities during the 1930’s. |
| Significance depression P2/ P3- contrast | But... Black America was hit the hardest - some northern cities, the rate of black unemployment reached 60%. Unemployment=often twice those among white Americans. • Farmers were already struggling before the Depression hit. Cotton planters in the south were some of the worst hit. • 2 million farmers were ejected from their lands. • Competition-unemployed white people= prepared to do any job, including those that previously only black people had done. Blatant racist employment practices often gave preference to white workers during the Depression. |
| Significance alphabet agencies P1- TVA | Set up in May 1933. -Benefit Made dams to control flooding and generate electricity - developing agriculture, commerce and industry in the valley; and operating the hydroelectric Wilson Dam.- many black Americans in south worked agricultural jobs- benefit Improved when the NAACP published and exposed this. It prompted a congressional committee to call for the improved treatment of black workers. The TVA proceeded a little more carefully. |
| - Alphabet agencies-Works Progress Administration (WPA)- significance | With $3.3 billion of federal funding, the PWA employed hundreds of thousands of workers who constructed roads, schools, hospitals and dams. It was particularly helpful to black Americans; It spend over $65 million on the construction and improvement of black schools, homes and hospitals- better education- better future jobs, better care- can work longer |
| The National Youth Administration (NYA)- benefits | Mary McLeod Bethune, the NYA’s Director of the Division of Negro Affairs, had her own fund for black students and encouraged state officials to ensure black youths signed up for programmes. Bethune worked at the NYA until its demise in 1943, and was one of the highest ranking black Americans in the Roosevelt administration- black Americans getting recognition from president- may help convince in future to make changes to agencies/ possibly legal changes |
| Alphabet agencies - weaknesses | Black TVA workers had segregated facilities and accommodation, restricted to unskilled jobs, given limited access to new housing, and excluded from model farm programmes. Some employers protested that the WPA wage was so high that black Americans were no longer willing to pick cotton at the normal rate- more likely to act against this agency/ Only 5% of black workers had supervisory roles on the North NYA- was exceptionally fair in its distribution of money, but it accepted segregation. |
| WW2- impact- P1 | Attitudes changed- Double V’= slogan created by a leading black American newspaper called the 'Pittsburgh Courier', symbolising African American aspiration that victory over Japan and Germany and their racist ideologies must also be joined by victory over racism at home- effective in gaining support- NAACP membership increased from 50,000 to nearly half a million as it made US citizens think of challenging racism in their own country as well as others. |
| WW2 impact P2 | Availability of white American labour declined with military conscription which caused black Americans to fill this gap. In the summer of 1942 only 3% of US workers were black Americans yet this changed to 8% in 1945. This was significant as the increase in employment of black Americans working in jobs that white Americans had done previously not only gave them increased opportunities through gaining a better income, but also through challenging stereotypes |
| WW2 impact P3 | caused protests leading to political and economic change. Union membership - by 1945, there were 1,250,000 labour union members. Discrimination against Black Americans in World War I led to protests to prevent a recurrence. A. Philip Randolph believed a demonstration in Washington would embarrass the Roosevelt administration- |
| WW2- A Phillip Randolph | impactful as had Randolph enacted a march on Washington in 1941 - provided a propaganda gift to the Axis Powers, undermining America’s 'national unity'. -caused Roosevelt to sign executive order 8802 declaring every defence contract between gov and industry had to have a provision prohibiting racial discrimination against workers and causing the FECP to be set up which aimed to prevent discrimination against African Americans in defence and government jobs. |
| Linda Brown- background info | Linda Brown, 7 year old daughter of Oliver Brown, a church minister, had to walk 20 blocks to get to school (1 mile and cross a train track)- The nearest school was 5 blocks away, but it was an all white school- Thurgood Marshall , NAACP lawyer took the case.- Case came before Supreme Court 1954. Earl Warren, a Californian Governor heard the case. He was against segregation. He declared segregation in education unconstitutional. He obtained unanimous support. |
| Linda Brown- Impact P1 | Success- The highest court in America declared segregation in schools was wrong/unconstitutional. This was a victory for the NAACP. 732 school districts in the border southern states desegregated by the end of 1957. |
| Linda Brown Impact P2 | Inspiration- The victory in the Supreme Court boosted confidence and inspired more activism. It opened the way to challenge other types of segregation, the implication was segregation led to inequality and so needed to be challenged. Twice as many African Americans registered to vote in 1957 than 1947. |
| Linda Brown- but... | Although segregation had been declared illegal, the court set no date for which desegregation had to happen. The NAACP returned to the court in 1955 and obtained Brown II ruling that it had to happen with ‘deliberate speed’, but still no date! Judges said an adjustment time was needed hence no date. Only 12% of the school districts in the rest of the south had segregated and in 7 states no change occurred. |
| Little Rock- need to consider- inspired by Linda Brown | Teens should have been able to enroll even if there was no date- caused uproar to point where president had to send paratroopers in to protect- but first time president had sent troops to south to protect lives of black Americans- lead to progress - but slow- 5 yrs still opposition |
| Little Rock- background/ Impact P1 | The mayor and School Board of Little Rock, Arkansas planned to achieve mixed schools by 1963. In 1957, 9 black students tried to enrol in the Central High School. P1- The State Governor ordered the National Guard to stop the black students taking their place. The harrowing scenes were projected around the world. |
| Little Rock Impact P2 | After pleas from Arkansas mayor, who feared mob violence, President Eisenhower sent in 1,100 paratroopers to protect the black students and federalised the National Guard. The first time a President had sent troops into the south to protect the rights of black Americans. |
| Little Rock Impact- P3 | The Little Rock Nine went on to accomplish great things in their professional careers, some of them serving in the areas of higher education, mental health, and the criminal justice system. Green served under President Jimmy Carter as his assistant secretary in the Department of Labor. Pattillo became a reporter for NBC. Brown worked under President Bill Clinton in the Department of the Interior as the deputy assistant secretary for workforce diversity. |
| Little Rock counter | Governor Faubus was reelected in 1958, and, rather than permit desegregation, he closed all of Little Rock’s schools. Many school districts in the South followed Little Rock’s example, closing schools or implementing “school-choice” programs that subsidized white students’ attendance at private segregated academies, which were not covered by the Supreme Court’s decision. Little Rock Central High School did not reopen with a desegregated student body until 1960, and efforts to integrate schools and other public areas throughout the country continued through the 1960s. |
| Bus Boycott- brief context | 1st December 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man when the bus became full. Rosa was sat in a row with 3 other men. The 3 men moved when the bus driver asked them to. Rosa refused. She was arrested and put on trial – on the day of her trial a boycott began. Rosa was found guilty. She was fined $10 and had to pay $4 costs. Black Americans were not happy, so they continued with the boycott. They wanted buses to be desegregated. |
| Bus boycott- impact P1 | It was one of the first major wins of the Civil Rights movement. A long-term large scale direct non-violent protest had worked. It inspired mass protests elsewhere and showed an alternative to the NAACP tactic of litigation (taking to court)- In December 1956 the Supreme Court in Browder V’s Gayle ruled that segregation on buses was unconstitutional. The law said black Americans could now sit wherever they wanted on the buses. |
| Bus boycott impact P2 | During the boycott, White Citizens’ Council membership rose from 6,000 to 12,000. They harassed the boycotters e.g. King’s house was bombed. This turned public opinion against the Whites and from then on, public opinion especially in the North openly supported Black Civil rights. |
| Bus boycott- P3 | Martin Luther King proved himself to be a powerful orator- chosen to lead. In 1957 he set up the Southern Christian Leadership Confederation (SCLC), an organisation that focused on the South. King felt this was needed. |
| Bus boycott- counter | It was not the NAACP’s first victory against segregation. This had been the Brown vs Board decision of 1954 where the judge had ruled that segregated education was unlawful. This had inspired Rosa Parks and many like her/ Due to the violence, many Black Americans were afraid to use their right to sit where they liked. Therefore, they would often sit towards the back to avoid any tension. |
| Civil rights orgs 1957-62 | h |
| march- Birmingham- context | By 1962, little progress had been made on Civil Rights despite the Freedom Rides and Sit-ins. This changed in 1963. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) sought to challenge this segregation in Birmingham and started to plan ‘Project C – Confrontation’. Birmingham, Alabama was known as the most segregated city in the USA. To avoid desegregating its parks, playgrounds and other facilities, the city just closed them all down! |
| march- Birmingham- context pt2 | ‘Bull’ Connor, the Police Chief, was a bad tempered man! The KKK were very active. King said it was the most racist city in the USA. The NAACP and SNCC were relatively inactive in Birmingham. King’s brother lived there and the SCLC had links there. |
| Birmingham significance P1 | The first real success of King and the SCLC. King had correctly anticipated the reaction of Connor and the media- On 3rd May, Police Chief Connor allowed his men to set dogs on the protesters, and then called in the fire department to use powerful water hoses. Over 2000 demonstrators were put in jail. Around 1300 children were arrested and students missed school. TV witnessed the event and it was seen worldwide. By the 3rd May there was chaos. |
| Birmingham significance P2 | The Kennedy administration admitted that Birmingham persuaded it to push the bill that eventually became the 1964 Civil Rights Act which prohibited racial discrimination in hiring practices and public services throughout the United States. |
| Birmingham significance P3 | By 10 May negotiators had reached an agreement, and despite his falling out with King, Shuttlesworth joined him and Abernathy to read the prepared statement that detailed the compromise: the removal of “Whites Only” and “Blacks Only” signs in restrooms and on drinking fountains, a plan to desegregate lunch counters, an ongoing “program of upgrading Negro employment,” the formation of a biracial committee to monitor the progress of the agreement, and the release of jailed protesters on bond- but the Klan tried to sabotage it, bombing King’s brother’s house and King’s motel room. This caused black riots. A policeman was stabbed and Birmingham degenerated into chaos. |
| March on Washington | 28th August 1963- 250,000 demonstrators marched on Washington. When the demonstrators saw politicians they shouted ‘Pass the bill’ Organisers were expecting half the number of people. Why?Birmingham made people talk about civil rights – King wanted to keep issue moving and put pressure on. 1963 was 100 year anniversary of the when Lincoln had promised abolition of slavery. Pressure from competition of rivals. Malcom X’s rise to prominence made him fearful black-Americans would reject non-violence and turn to violence. March had to be successful! A Phillip Randolph had success w/threat of march |
| March on Washington impact P1 | The March on Washington got maximum publicity – across the globe – a well organised peaceful protest and a message no one could argue with 'this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed – we hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal’- used religion |
| March on Washington P2 | It was a united front - black and white people working together for a common cause- (80,000 white supporters) and the Christian ethos and hopeful speeches helped to unite different sections of US society. |
| March on Washington P3 | Further pressure on President Kennedy to act on civil rights, gave him more leverage too. |
| JFK significance P1 | 11 th June 1963 JFK made a televised speech in support of civil rights. The day before the Governor of Alabama stood at the entrance to the state university to stop black students from entering. Kennedy said there had been a ‘100-year delay’ in dealing with the issue and action was needed. He then attempted to pass the Civil Rights Bill. It was due to go before Congress in November 1963. |
| JFK significance P2 | 1960 JFK spoke to Martin Luther King’s wife during his election campaign. King had been jailed in following a sit-in in Atlanta, he was sentenced to 4 months hard labour. JFK said he would do what he could to help, King was released the next day. This was publicised. |
| JFK- but... | He did not have to court sponsors as his dad was rich enough to fund him. His real interest lay in foreign policy and he wanted to focus on this. He criticised Eisenhower’s decision to send in troops to Little Rock in 1957. He opposed Eisenhower’s Civil Rights Act of 1957 – this created a national civil rights commission to investigate discrimination and the Justice Department now had a civil rights sections to support black Americans if they were prevented from voting. |
| Civil rights act 1964- significance P1 | Passage of the Act ended the application of "Jim Crow" laws, which had been upheld by the Supreme Court in the 1896 case Plessy v. Ferguson, in which the Court held that racial segregation purported to be "separate but equal" was constitutional - ended segregation in public places |
| civil rights act- P2 | It also paved the way for two major follow-up laws: the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which prohibited literacy tests and other discriminatory voting practices, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which banned discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of property. |
| civil rights act P3 | banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin- covered other groups |
| Voting rights act- significance points | The voting rights bill was passed in the U.S. Senate on May 26, 1965. The U.S. House of Representatives passed the bill on July 9. Although the Voting Rights Act passed, state and local enforcement of the law was weak, and it often was ignored outright, mainly in the South and in areas where the proportion of Black people in the population was high and their vote threatened the political status quo. Still, the Voting Rights Act gave African American voters the legal means to challenge voting restrictions and vastly improved voter turnout. In Mississippi alone, voter turnout among Black people increased from 6 percent in 1964 to 59 percent in 1969. |
| Voting rights act p2 | Since its passage, the Voting Rights Act has been amended to include such features as the protection of voting rights for non-English speaking American citizens. |
| Culture significance P1 | Beloved- book- 1987-aimed to give a voice to the collective memory of African Americans. The book emphasises the long lasting impact of slavery, and the trauma it left. She especially highlights the importance of black communities. She portrays their strength in the face of such oppression as slavery. The book is based on the true story of Margaret Garner, who killed her youngest daughter in an attempt to save her from being forced back into slavery. Morrison portrays African Americans with deep complexity and humanity, which had not often been done before in such a popular book. |
| Culture-P2 | Islands in the sun-1957- While there isn’t much public display of affection in the film, the inclusion of interracial romances adds significant depth to the story. Island in the Sun is credited by others to have taken the first steps toward showing interracial relationships in film, making the film significant in Hollywood history. |
| Culture- But | In lots of films- does harm- stereotyping- misrepresentation- Birth of a nation 1915- Griffith’s Civil War epic cannot be forgiven for its portrayal of African Americans as sexcrazed animals, the Radical Republicans who led the Reconstruction as their deluded patsies, and the Ku Klux Klan as an army of heroes, gallantly riding to the defense of the nation. Also movies that were positive recieved viceral reactions- Islands ITS was boycotted in some southern states and protests spread throughout Northern Minnesota. Additionally a white supremacist group in California, the American Nationalist group, published a flyer, encouraging the public to boycott the film. |
| Freedom summer- overview | The aim of Freedom summer was to try and get as many black Mississippians as possible to try to join the voter rolls. They correctly assumed that the majority would be denied the right to register and that this injustice could be widely exposed. They hoped that revealing the contradiction- between American ideals of democracy and- the actual reality in the South would prompt the federal government to act. |
| Freedom summer significance | Mississippi's badly-funded segregated schools failed to educate most black residents to minimal levels. Freedom Schools were established in local churches, storefronts, and other buildings so children and adults could learn civics, African-American history, social studies, reading, and math, as well as develop leadership skills. During the summer more than 40 Freedom Schools opened in 20 communities across Mississippi, and more than 2,000 children and adults enrolled in classes led by 175 teachers. |
| Freedom summer- but... | These three civil rights workers were murdered on the first day of Freedom Summer. Chaney was a young black activist from Mississippi, Goodman was a new volunteer from New York City, and Schwerner was a CORE staff member from New York. Although previous murders of black organizers in Mississippi had been largely ignored by the media, the disappearance of Goodman, Chaney and Schwerner on the very first day of the project was widely covered by the mainstream press and helped focus the nation's attention on the Mississippi Summer Project. |
| Freedom summer- but p2 | Mississippi public officials at all levels denounced the Freedom Summer project and supported white supremacy and segregation. Mississippi’s U.S. senators and its governor publicly refused to obey federal integration laws, and state legislators passed new laws prohibiting picketing and leafleting and many of the other non-violent tactics used by civil rights workers. |
| Selma march- overview | King chose to campaign for voting rights in Selma because only 130 of 15,000 black citizens were registered. Citizens continued their long fight against institutionalized racism. Sheriff could be trusted to react badly! King led would-be-voters in unsuccessful attempts to register at |
| selma overview p2 | Selma’s County Court. Several incidents made headlines; A state trooper shot a black youth who was trying to shield his mother from a beating Whites through venomous snakes at blacks trying to register Keen for the media to expose the brutality, King held back men who tried to stop Clark clubbing a black woman and then got himself arrested for marching. |
| Selma significance P1 | One of the pivotal days was March 7, when 17 people were injured by police, including future Congressman John Lewis. Televised viewers saw state troopers attack the marchers with clubs, cattle prods and tear gas which aroused nationwide criticism of Selma’s whites. |
| Selma significance P2/ P3 | ‘Bloody Sunday’ prompted Congress to pass the Voting Rights Acts (August 1965). Johnson made one of his best speeches in support of the legislation. Sympathetic racial marches in cities such as Chicago, Detroit, New York and Boston constituted ‘a shining moment in the conscience of man’. |
| MLK- significance P1 | King set up this organisation to focus on improving the black situation in the south. It was an alternative to the NAACP’s litigation approach. The main method was to attract attention to the issue of racial inequality using non-violent direct action. King hoped to revitalise the fight for rights and quicken the pace of change. It began with a march on Washington to support Eisenhower’s 1957 Civil Rights bill. The SCLC achieved little in the first 3 years; rivalry from others, lack of staff and poor organisation. However, the SCLC played an important role in the March on Washington in 1963. |
| MLK significance P2 | Birmingham- Non-violent direct action was met with white violence, which gained national media attention. An agreement was put in place to improve black opportunities in Birmingham. Washington-250,000 of WA/BA showed-I had a dream speech hit right tone Both put pressure on Kennedy to act, in following year the Civil Right Act was passed. |
| MLK- but | Many of his acts were inspired by others- Rosa Parks boycott- he was asked to lead for first time Non-violent direct action was met with white violence, which gained national media attention. King was arrested, on his release he continued to protest and agreed to use children in protests and chaos ensued in Birmingham. An agreement was put in place to improve black opportunities in Birmingham. This did put pressure on Kennedy to act, in following year the Civil Right Act was passed. |
| MLK but- P2 | King rented a ghetto apartment to publicise the problems in housing. King’s worst moment came when led a march to the white neighbourhood at Marquette Park. Even though the mayor sent 800 policemen to protect 700 marchers, the marchers were ferociously attacked by whites, a brick even hit King on the head, the racist chants were deplorable. It made the headlines and cost Chicago £2 million in damages. |
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