Pompeii and Herculaneum

Question	Answer
When did Giuseppe Fiorelle work in Pompeii and Herculaneum?	1840's - 1875
Influence and contribution of Giuseppe Fiorelle	- Introduced stratigraphy - Invented plaster casts - imposed a system of uncovering the houses from the top down - Est. school of archaeology in Pompeii - Numbering houses
Benefit of studying sites from the top down:	- Allows for better preservation of artefacts and structures
August Mau - Late 1800s	- Created the four styles of Pompeiian mural painting - This was very important because not only did it teach about the aesthetics of Pompeii and decoration within houses, but it helped to date houses and is still being used
1st Style	structural, incrustation or masonry style, was most popular from 200 BC until 80 BC
2nd Style	architectural style, or 'illusionism' dominated the 1st century BC, where walls were decorated with architectural features and trompe l'oeil (trick of the eye) compositions
3rd Style	The Third style, or ornate style, was popular around 20–10 BC - It leaves room for more figurative and colorful decoration
4th Style	Characterized as a baroque is generally less ornamented than its predecessor
Vittoria Spinazzola	- Implemented a method of using scaffolding to support the walls of buildings which were to fall after the soil around them was removed - Excavated house of the gladiators
New technology	- X-raying of papyri and human remains
House of the Gladiators	- Brian Brennan - Macquarie Uni -Conventional Roman house structure -Famous gladiator graffiti found (CIL IV.4297; 4341; 4342’ 4345) - Importance of Fiorelli's number method - Neglect of buildings
Alison Cooley – Inpact of the Ad 62 earthquake	- Maiuri (1942) and Penelope Allison (1992) believe Pompeii was in economic decline after AD 62 earthquake. Cooley contradicts this with the evidence of reconstruction and redecoration - Reconstruction of water pipes is evident
Estelle Lazer – Health of the residents of Pompeii	-Lazer’s investigations have dispelled many assumptions made about the victims of Pompeii Assessing teeth - gain an insight into the general health of the population - heart disease - HFI
Penelope Allison – Room use in Pompeiian houses	- Statistical analysis of room use - Utensils found in Atriums, meaning that the room was used for more than business and entertainment - “If you were a wealthy Roman and you fell asleep on your couch after dinner, why not just sleep where you were?” asks Dr Allison
Resources for geographical location	- Seneca the Younger - Naturales Quaestiones - Pliny the Elder - Natural History, the largest surviving work from the Roman Empire - Strabo - Geographica
Evidence provided by architecture	- Rebuilding after earthquake - water pipes - Alison Cooley - Lack of distinction between the homes of the upper and lower class - Stages of occupation and development of urban structure over time
Where was it built?	between Sarno River in the south and the fertile slopes of Mt Vesuvius - Campania region
Why was it built where it was?	Was built here because of the strategic importance as it lay on the only route linking north and south, connecting the seaside area with the agricultural region of the land - The fertile land also played a big role in this
Weather	2 main seasons, a hot and dry summer (may – September), and a mild wet winter (October – April)
Pumice	Used for building roads, stepping stones and for grinding wheat - stones of pumice flew out of the volcano upon eruption
First visible sign of eruption	15km column of rock and gas explodes into the sky + minor tremblings of the earth
Pyroclastic surges	rock and gas falling from the volcano (rather than melted lava) - poisoned the air and suffocated many, also burned the eyes and throat
How far buried were each of the cities?	Pompeii - 4m Herculaneum - 20m
4 elements of economy	Trade, commerce, industry, occupation
3 social classes	Freeborn, Freedmen, Slaves
Freeborn men	-Had full legal rights -Could hold political office or town council -Included landowners and businessmen -Controlled public finances, spaces and religion
Freeborn women	-Could not hold formal political office -Were under legal control of fathers and husbands -Could own property, construct buildings and tombs, hold priesthoods and conduct business -Were able to support political candidates
Freedmen	-Voted in elections -Owned business -Participated in some religious cults -Could become an augustalis (priest of the cult of the emperor) -Could not hold formal political office
Freedwomen	- Could not hold formal political office - Some worked for former masters
Slaves	-Made up 40% of the population - Little evidence of their lives exists - Many were buried in unmarked graves
Role of women in Pompeii	running a household, bringing up children and controlling finances
Women in public life	- From inscriptions we learn that there were rich women at Pompeii who were able to own property in their own right and to manage their affairs without supervision by a male relative, eg. inscriptions about Marcia and rufina metilia
Poppaea Sabina	Her family owned the house of Menander and the House of the Gilded Cupids. She was married to the emperor Nero and owned her own villa in nearby Oplontis
Eumachia	- public priestess and matron of Concordia Augustus - her family owned the brickmaking works and vineyards. She constructed a large public building in the forum that bears the name “The Eumachia Building”
Lucius Caecilius Jucundus	- Freeborn - banker Bronze bust of Lucius Caecilius Jucundus found in the front hall of his house – it indicates he was a person of high standing -
Manucipia	self governing local community
Commitium	Peoples assembly, including all male citizens, elected magistrates and voted honors
Magistracy	Duumviri (senior magistrates for 1 year), Aedile (junior magistrates for 1 year, responsible for judicial system, public works, administration, municipal cults, games and public entertainment and markets
Duumviri	responsible for advising the decurionum every 5 years, qualifications included male, freeborn, over 25 years, required wealth and unblemished character
Aedile	administered sacred and public buildings, maintained sewerage roads and public order, sponsors spectacles theatre and festivals
Graffiti on politics	“To hell with the Aediles, they’re in with the Bakers” - showing that political views were acceptable
Basilica	the site of the judiciary and law courts, as well as a centre for business activities
Political buildings	Basilica, municipal offices (duumviri office, Tabularium, curia), comitium
Domus houses	- Built by the wealthy Slanted rooves
Sarno River	A stream that passes through Pompeii to the south of Naples
Decumani	Roads running from east to west
Cardines	Roads runnings from north to south
Pliny the Younger	Witnessed the eruption wrote EPISTULAE - a recount of the events of the eruption
Asphyxiation	Dying from lack of oxygen (suffocation)
Trade	When two or more individuals/groups/countries exchange goods and services of similar value
Occupations	Specific jobs within an industry, something that a person does to earn money so as to accommodate for their lifestyle - Fishermen, grape and oil pressers, wheat harvesters, fuller, prostitution
Industries	Manufacture of specific materials on a large scale e.g. fishing, clothing, winemaking
Commerce	Sustainability of foreign relations through trade, interaction with money and buying and selling
The Palestra	Was a gymnasium and an exercise ground - Connected to these palestras a bathing room - Both towns valued their Palaestra and the games and upkeep of them were paid for by local wealthy citizens.
Thermopolia	A type of food stall that provided ‘fast-food’ services, both in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Tablinum	Office/ business centre
Gambling	dice games Names of two female found in Via Stabiana show the date they gambled and the amount that they owed in debt as well as the interest amount added to the debt
Theatre in Herculaneum	Theatre in herculaneum was the first to be discovered. Held 2500 people.
Garum	A fishy sauce concoction - Small terracotta jars that once held garum have been found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. They have painted labels with information including the contents, manufacturer, the shipper and the recipient
Dining in Herculaneum	Artworks, including frescoes and mosaics, feature foods such as fruit, fish, poultry and game → A banqueting scene from Herculaneum
Clothing	In the atrium of the estate of Julia Felix, wall paintings were found depicting the market scene, showing the toga being worn but the tunic appearing to be more common male clothing
Estelle Lazer vs. Sarah Biesel	EL found large amounts of tooth decay caused by basalt grindstones in bread SB found no tooth decay and claims they had a sugarless diet
Baths in Pompeii	Forum baths Stabian baths Private baths (house of Julia Felix)
Bath evidence	Graffiti at Pompeii depicts that members of party groups at the baths had food and prostitutes brought to them for their pleasure
Herculaneum baths	Central baths: a mosaic floor depicting a triton with serpents entwined around his legs in both the men and women’s dressing rooms. Suburban baths: Located outside of the town- had one set of rooms and these would have been open to men and women at different times.
House of the Fawn	Great Mosaic of Alexander placed on the floor of the Atrium - at the centre of the light A statue of a dancing fawn in the garden Owned by an aristocratic family
The Basilica	- Forum - Columns - Political and judiciary activities - "I want to break venus' ribs with clubs and cripple the goddess' loins" - in reaction to court case
Temple of Isis	- wall paintings reflect Egyptian landscape (nile) - columns + statues of greek god Hypocrates and Venus - A wall painting of the priests performing rituals at the temple of Isis was found in Herculaneum -
Statue of Isis in Temple of Isis	shows Romanization of Egyptian cults – use of marble materials, pose and style of staute, Isis’ hair was styled in a Roman fashion
Andrew Wallace-Hadrill - Urgent need tfor conservation	- Leader of the excavation project for the British School at Rome - Has made detailed studies of housig in Pompeii - "Man is wreaking a damage far greater than Vesuvius" - 60 Minutes, 2004
Roman Religion Source	Carving on an altar in the temple of Vespasian – priest head covered in Toga pouring libation to the god, sacrificial bull is lead to the alter by flute players and two young men carry implements for the sacrifice
Roman Religion	- was concerned with ritual and not belief – no personal relationship with the gods, nor was there any religious doctrines - Divination, telling the will of the gods from signs and omens, was a major part of religious life
Imperial Cult	- religious praise towards the emperor in order to secure loyalty and unify the empire (Bradley) - gave citizens opportunities to publicise their loyalty to the emperor and to move upwards in society
Imperial Priesthood	Membership of the Augustales, or priests of the Imperial cult, became a way for wealthy freedmen to advance when other public office was denied them
Temples for Imperial Cult	- Temple of Augusian Fortune (Pompeii) built by the duumvir Marcus Tullius was dedicated to the worship of Fortuna Augusta - Tempe of Vespasian (Pompeii) – inscriptions suggest it was built by priestess Mamia
Lararium	Shrine to the lares - located in the atrium or garden – any food dropped during meals were offered to the lares – feet and heads of chickens found in larariums through Pompeii and Herculaneum – images of passed family members were also kept in these for worship (House ofthe Faun)
Household Gods	- Roman goddess Vesta (goddess of the hearth) was worshipped in Paterfamilias - The genius (god of male line of descent) was worshipped on the birthdays of the paterfamillas - The penates (gods of larder and food storage) had statues made of them that were placed on the table during meal times
Foreign Cults	- Statue of Hindu Goddess of beauty, fertility and wealth, Lakshmi, was found in the House of the Four Styles – could have come to Pompeii through trade links - Jewish names such as Mary and Martha have been found in inscriptions and some amphorae (jug), suggesting the presence of Jewish religion
Tombs	-Most funerary monuments are found on Sepulchre Street, leading from the Herculaneum gate and the Nucerian Way, and near other gateways --The tombs are of various types, indicating that the rich and the poor were buried close together
Tomb of Faustus	-Tomb of Faustus was decorated in a variety of styles, with a scene of a funerary ceremony and a ship lowering its sails – showing Greek-Hellenistic and Roman-Italic influences
Tomb inscription	“To Marcus Obellius Firmis, son of Marcus, Aedile, duumvir, with judicial power. The town councillors decreed him a burial place with 5000 sesterces for his funeral”
What does Mamia’s connection to the imperial cult add to our knowledge of women in Pompeii?	women were able to have leading, prestigious religious roles in society. The conclusion that religion was very important in regard to social status could be made.
Painting damage	Many paintings have shown signs of decay when they are compared with old photographs. This can be attributed to the use of unsuitable conservation materials – liquid glass, resin varnish and wax coating
House of Vestals (Herculuaneum	was excavated in the 18th C and was documented to be brightly coloured and vibrant, however now large parts of plaster has been destroyed and the colours have faded - awnings and Perspex covers have been placed over covered areas, however these measures have been proved ineffective in many cases
Environmental damage on houses	Wall paintings and graffiti damaged by moisture, entire paintings peel from the wall in some cases. Exposure to sunlight causes for the paintings to fade. eg. House of the Vestals
World Heritage addition date	1997
Italian Responsibilites - Conservation	The Great Pompeii Project: The project was put in place by the authorities listed above to aid the urgent conservation of the sites in Pompeii. The project institutes the protection of the sites from the elements and a more effective surveillance system to protect the area from tourists.
International Contributions - Conserbation	Kacyra Family Foundation (CyArk): Their mission is to use new technologies to create a 3D online library of sites before they’re lost to natural causes. This digitally saves the site.
Italian contributions - Reconstruction	- Rotting wooden beams replaced with new ones → stained a rich dark brown - Planting original species → research project designed by the University of Sheffield to retrieve evidence for the date, layout and landscaping →restored garden of the House of Venus
International contributions - reconstruction	2001 The Herculaneum collaborative project begun to conserve and enhance the archaeological site. This was achieved, through reconstruction through the use of scaffolding, clearing of vegetation, new mortars
Impact of Tourism	- Attracts 2 million + people each year o Pedestrians causing roads to wear away o Souveniring o Leaving graffiti on walls and other surfaces o Damaging frescoes when backpacks and other items scrape them
Conservation from tourist damage	Tourists access to specific regions of the city is restricted on a rotating basis as to reduce the impact of visitors each year - the most well preserved areas are often closed off to the public, as to protect the site
Resources of Pompeii and Herculanum	Grapes, olives, flowers, fruit, cattle, pumice, fish
Four main areas of Pompeii	-the forum -the insulae or blocks fronting the Via Stabiana -Region VI -eastern area
Insulae	A kind of apartment building that housed most of the urban population of Pompeii - Greek influence
Roads	-stepping stones provided for pedestrian use while still giving access to wheeled traffic - could cross the roads without stepping the sewage - Deep groves in the roads indicate the volume of ancient traffic
Via dell' Abbondanza	one of the principal roads (decumani) running the length of the town (east to west)
Nucerian Gate	- in the eastern part of Pompeii, near the amphitheatre - Funeral processions leaving the city for the nearby necropolis would also have passed through this gate -road leads down to a group of more than 40 tombs
Herculaneum roads	- had less traffic than Pompeii - more effective drainage - some streets were build solely for pedestrian use
Main buildings of Herculaneum	- Forum - Basilica - Major temples - Amphitheatre - Theatres - Palaestra - Thermae - Necropolis
First Letter of Pliny the younger to Tacitus:	Eye witness account of erruption - “like a pine tree it spreaded” -“a night blacker and denser than any other night”
Issues of reliability with Pliny the younger's letter	- Couldn't identify where the mountain was - Unknown location of elder's body - Written 25 years after the event - Purpose was to honour his uncle - bias
Strigil	an instrument with a curved blade used, to scrape sweat and dirt from the skin in a hot-air bath or after exercise
Leisure in Pompeii	- Gladiatorial fights and cockfights - Brothels - Theatre - Gambling and dice games - Sports and fitness - palaestra

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