How to evaluate/discuss- AQA A Level Psychology

Validity
1. This deals with the accuracy of the research. There are many types of validity to consider, although the two key types are external and internal.
  1. Internal validity
    1. Are the effects observed in the investigation due to the manipulation of the IV, and not other variables?
      1. Demand characteristics lower the internal validity, because the behaviour observed is not as a result of manipulating the IV
  2. External validity
    1. Can the research/theory be generalised to other settings and eras?
      1. Ecological validity refers to whether research can be generalised to other settings, especially to everyday life. Often, if the task/situation is too artificial (low mundane realism), then it has low ecological validity as it can't be generalised to everyday life.
  3. Temporal validity
    1. Does the theory hold true over time?
      1. For example, Asch's study of conformity is considered a 'child of its time' because it took place in a very conformist era in America
Reliability
1. This deals with the consistency of the research. The main type of reliability is inter-rater reliability.
  1. A piece of research lacks reliability if only one observer has been used, as their perspective is subjective and, at times, biased.
  2. Research should also be reliable over time- the test-retest theory. If the same test can be done with the same participants, but at different times, and still produces the same results, it is considered reliable.
Application
1. How can the research/theory be applied to real life?
  1. This can include treatments, therapies, behaviour management (e.g. key workers in orphanages). Essentially, this is how the research has practical application
  2. It is also worth considering the theoretical value; how has the research contributed to our understanding of certain behaviours?For example, Harlow's research showed how attachment is linked to comfort, not food.
Supporting research
1. Is there any research that supports the theory/explanation that you are evaluating?
2. Supporting evidence improves the external validity of a theory, and often means research can be better generalised
3. If possible, learn at least one piece of supporting evidence for every theory/explanation/treatment. It is an easy way to score marks, and can help trigger further discussion
Contradictory research
1. Much like supporting research, there is often research that contradicts theories/explanations. This decreases the validity of the theory.
2. Sometimes research isn't contradictory- instead, it is an alternative theory. In your discussion, you can mention alternative explanations of the same behaviour e.g. the role of temperament in the Strange Situation.
3. Like supporting research, you should also learn at least one piece of research which contradicts/offers an alternative to the theory/research that you are discussing
Ethical issues
1. Deception
  1. Have the participants been lied to at any point? This can include about the aims of the study, or elements of the study itself (e.g. other participants actually being confederates)
2. Lack of confidentiality/privacy
  1. Has the confidentiality of the participants been breached in any way? Participants should be referred to by initials/code names/numbers. They also have the right to control information about themselves- this includes the right to withdraw.
3. Psychological harm
  1. Have the participants suffered in any way? This can include physical harm (e.g. participants suffering seizures in Milgram's study), and mental harm (stress and distress).
4. Lack of informed consent
  1. This links to deception- if the participants have been deceived, then they can't have given fully informed consent. Sometimes, this is necessary to prevent demand characteristics, however the participants must be debriefed afterwards.
Wider implications
1. Does the research/theory have an implications on society? These implications can be both positive or negative
2. An example of positive implications is using Rutter's ERA study (Attachment) to improve care in orphanages/institutions by introducing key workers
3. An example of negative implications is Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation; it places blame on the mother for any problems encountered in the future by the child- this research is known as socially sensitive research
4. You can also consider the economical implications; will this research/explanation/treatment benefit the economy? For example, drug treatments enable better functioning, so people can return to work quicker. Research into biological rhythms has enabled the introduction of shift work and brightly lit work areas.
Methods used
1. How does the design and type of the study affect the findings?
  1. The different experimental designs have different strengths and weaknesses; consider demand characteristics, order effects, individual differences, and cost
  2. The different types of experiment also have different strengths and weaknesses; consider mundane realism and control of variables
2. How does the design and technique of observations affect the findings?
  1. Consider subjectivity, demand characteristics, ethics, and validity
3. How does the design and technique of self report affect the findings?
  1. Consider subjectivity, ease, ability to analyse, cost, and bias
4. It is also worth considering the researcher's role in the study; are there examples of researcher bias or subjectivity? Do they have a vested interest in obtaining a particular result?
5. There may also be examples of gender or culture bias; are the findings being generalised to the opposite gender/ different cultures when actually they don't take into account gender/cultural differences?
I use the mnemonic 'SCREAM VW' to remember these elements :)

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How to evaluate/discuss- AQA A Level Psychology

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	Created by Grace Fawcitt over 6 years ago