This states that behaviour is a
result of learning by observation
Children observe a role model, and
imitate their behaviour. They also
learn whether the role model is
rewarded or punished for their
behaviour by observation, this is
known as vicarious reinforcement.
If others are rewarded, then they
are more likely to imitate the
behaviour. Characterisitics and
status of the role model will affect
the likelihood of imitation
Conditions necessary for effective modeling:
Attention: The person must pay
attention to the model
Retention: the observer must be
able to remember the behaviour that
has been observed
Motor Reproduction: The ability to
replicate the behaviour
Motivation: The
learner must want to
demonstrate the
behaviour
SLT does not occur
exclusively; likely interacts
with other conditioning and
underlying biological
factors
Bandura: (1961)- Bobo Doll: 3-5
year old children, split into 2
conditions. Group 1 observed an
adult behaving aggressively
towards the doll, in condition 2, the
children watched the adult
behaving passively. Children
exposed to aggressive behaviour
reproduced the behaviour they saw.
Follow-Up Study: Children
who saw the adult being
rewarded for their aggressive
behaviour were even more
likely to imitate & children
who saw the adult being
punished were less likely to
behave aggressive (evidence
for vicarious learning)
EVALUATION:
Ethical issues, low
ecological validity
and potential
demand
characterstics
EVALUATION OF THE THEORY: it
explains cultural differences in
aggression, vicarious learning can
explain aggression from a learning
perspective without the need for
direct reinforcement, explains
individual differences, but does not
necessarily apply to adults
IDAs: ethical issues,
nurture side of the
nature-nurture debate,
cultural bias
(ethnocentrism of Bobo
Doll experiment)
Deindividuation
Not all aggressive behaviour
is between individuals; when
in a large anonymous group
people often behave more
aggressively than they
normally would.
Process: presence of a large
group, anonymity, increased
social arousal, decreased
social-awareness and
self-evaluation, diffused
responsibility, guilt and
accountability
Diener et al (1976): Trick or Treat
Asked women to give out sweets to
trick or treaters. Half the children were
asked for names and addresses, and
the other half were anonymous. The
woman has to take a call, so the
children are instructed to take only one
sweet. Anonymous children in a group
were much more likely to take more
sweets, supporting idea of
deindividuation
Evaluation: High ecological
validity, sample involved
children (generalizability and
ethics?). aggression was not
operationalised
Watson: Looked at tribal groups
and war paint. They gathered data
from the HRAF database and
looked at 23 societies together with
information about whether they
changed their appearance before
going to war. Findings: 12/13 tribal
groups changed their appearance
and this correlated with instances
of torturing, and killing their
opponents. 10 societies were less
brutal towards their victim; 7/10 did
not change their appearance.
Evaluation: accounts for many
different cultures, and therefore
excludes cultural bias, there was
a large sample and so the results
are representative.
Zimbardo (1969) studied groups
of undergraduate women who had
to give electric shocks to another
student to aid learning. Half wore
lab coats and had their faces
hidden (anonymous), and the other
group had to wear normal clothes
and introduce themselves.
Anonymous group shocked the
learner for twice as long as the
identifiable group.
Hormones Organic chemicals that
regulate and control bodily functions
Testosterone: An androgen
hormone that stimulates
development of male secondary
sexual characteristics. It is
produced mainly in the testes, but
also in the ovaries and adrenal
cortex. High levels are linked to
aggression.
Dabbs et al (1995)- measured
testosterone in saliva of 692
adult male prisoners; found
higher levels in rapists and
violent offenders.
Pope et al (2000): 20-50 yr old men,
group given testosterone for 6 weeks,
others given placebo. Paired with a
'participant' and told they could reduce
the amount of cash received by the
participant pushing the button. Told
same was happening on the other side.
Experimental group pushed button more.
Cortisol: Produced by the adrenal medulla
to calm the body after the stress
response. It also inhibits the production of
high levels of testosterone.
McBurnett (2000): 4 yr study of
boys with behavioural problems,
those with low levels of cortisol
had antisocial behaviour which
began earlier, and had 3 times
as many aggressive symptoms
as the rest.
Neurotransmitters:
chemicals that allow
for the transmission of
impulses across
different parts of the
brain.
Serotonin: low levels linked with
aggressive behaviour; people tend to
respond more impulsively and
aggressively to emotional stimuli.
Mann et al (1990) administered
dexfenflouromine to 35 healthy
adults ( known to deplete
serotonin). Participants filled in
questionnaires which assessed
hostility and aggression. Levels
increased in males but not
females.
Lloyd et al (1974) found that
suicide victims had low
serotonin activity.
Animal study: Popoya
et al (1991)- domestic
pets have higher levels
of serotonin
Dopamine: Increased levels linked to
increased aggressive behaviour. It is
produced in response to rewarding stimuli
and it is thought that some individuals
actively seek out aggressive encounters for
the rewarding sensation.
Buitelaar (2003); dopamine
antagonists (which reduce dopamine
activity) are used successfully in
treatment of violent delinquents.
Couppis & Kennedy (2008); mice
reward pathway in the brain
becomes engaged in response to an
aggressive event and that dopamine
is involved as a positive reinforcer in
this pathway. Suggest that
individuals will seek out aggressive
encounters because they experience
a rewarding sensation.
Genetics
One gene has been linked to
aggression, known as MAOA.
This gene regulates the
metabolism of serotonin in the
brain, and low levels of
serotonin are associated with
aggressive behaviour.
Aggressive people have a faulty
gene responsible for producing
MAOA- low levels are linked to
aggression.
Caspi et al (2002) investigated 500
male children, with low producing
MAOA gene were more likely to
exhibit antisocial behaviour if they
had been maltreated. This shows a
gene-environment interaction.
Evaluation: gender bias, large
sample.
Use of twin studies
and adoption studies
Twin study: Cocarro (1997); sample of 182 MZ
twins and 118 DZ twins (adults). They found that
50% of individual differences in direct aggression
as there was a 50% concordance rate. Evaluation;
50% social or environmental influence-
environment was responsible for 70% of individual
differences in verbal aggression.
Adoption study: Hutchings & Mednick (1973); 14000 adoptions;
correlation between biological fathers and sons of convictions for
criminal violence. child ran a 50% risk of acquiring a criminal
conviction due to biological father by the age of 18. Evaluation:
correlation not causation,
Young et al (2002):
animal study, mice were
selectively bred to knock
out gene responsible for
MAOA production. Mice
were extremely
aggressive. Evaluation:
ethics, generalisability
IDA: real-world
application,
nature side of
debate,
reductionist,
deterministic