2761379
LO3- Criminological theory in relation to
partner violence and sexual assault
- LO3.3- Evaluate trends in intimate partner violence
and sexual assault using statistical information
- Intimate partner violence and sexual assault
- “An estimated 1.4 million women and 700,000
men have suffered domestic abuse in the last
year, according to figures from the Office for
National Statistics (ONS).” –(Travis A, 2015,
p.1)
- The ONS data highlights a hidden link between
domestic abuse and poverty with women who live
in the poorest households more than three times
likely to be victims of domestic abuse.
- The ONS data highlights a hidden link between
domestic abuse and poverty with women who live
in the poorest households more than three times
likely to be victims of domestic abuse.
- The statistics on the extensive nature of sexual
assault and intimate partner violence are disturbing
according to 2003 Congressional records. It is
estimated that “One in six women in the United States
have been victims of rape or attempted rape. One in
five children will be a victim of sexual abuse before
researching the age of 18.” – (Congress, 2003, p.14261)
- According to the New York state office for the prevention
of domestic violence adults and children are the most at
risk of sexual abuse by someone they know (intimately or
casually), not by a stranger. Women are the greatest at risk
of both physical assault and sexual assault by their
intimate partners. Intimate partner violence (IPV) of all
kinds according to New York state office for the prevention
of domestic violence is underreported (sexual abuse in
particular). “One study estimates that only 16% of all
sexual assaults are reported. The harm of violence from an
acquaintance or intimate partner is exacerbated if sexual
abuse has also occurred;; victims who have experienced
both forms of abuse report higher rates of post-traumatic
stress disorder, major depression, and substance abuse.”
Reports also suggest that women who do report sexual
assault are less likely to be re-victimized, so it is important
that any individual providing supportive services to
domestic violence victims do
- However CSEW states that, “Domestic violence is a very
private crime. Victims of domestic violence are less likely
than victims of other forms of violence to report their
experiences to the authorities because of beliefs that
their abuse is not a matter for police involvement, their
experiences too trivial, or from fear of reprisal. There is
thus significant under-reporting of domestic abuse by
victims, and it is acknowledged that data on reported
incidents and cases prosecuted, which has recently
started being collected by the criminal justice system,
represents the tip of the iceberg.” –(Dar A, 2013, p.2)
- “An estimated 1.4 million women and 700,000
men have suffered domestic abuse in the last
year, according to figures from the Office for
National Statistics (ONS).” –(Travis A, 2015,
p.1)
- Intimate partner violence and sexual assault
- LO3.1- Explain the risk factors that
relate to intimate partner violence
and sexual assault
- Intimate partner violence
- Individuals with certain risk factors are more likely than others to become
perpetrators or victims of IPV (intimate partner violence). Some of these risk factors
could include: Relationship factors- These factors could involve martial conflicts,
dominance and control of the relationship with partner, economic stress and
unhealthy family relationships. Societal factors- These factors could include traditional
gender norms. Community factors- These factors could include poverty and associated
factors, low social capital-lack of institutions, relationships and norms that shape a
community’s social interactions and weak community sanctions against IPV. Individual
Risk Factors- These factors could include unemployment, anger, antisocial personality
traits and desire for power and control in relationships.
- These risk factors could contribute to IPV but not be direct causes, not every individual who
is identified as ‘at risk’ will become involved in violence.
- These risk factors could contribute to IPV but not be direct causes, not every individual who
is identified as ‘at risk’ will become involved in violence.
- Some risk factors for IPV
perpetration and
victimization are similar
whilst others could be
associated with another. A
combination of
(individual, relational,
community, and societal
factors) could contribute
to the risk of becoming an
IPV perpetrator or victim.
Understanding these
multilevel factors could
help identify
opportunities for
prevention.
- "Intimate
partner violence
(IPV) is a serious,
preventable
public health
problem that
affects millions.
The term
"intimate partner
violence"
describes
physical, sexual,
or psychological
harm by a
current or former
partner or spouse
- Individuals with certain risk factors are more likely than others to become
perpetrators or victims of IPV (intimate partner violence). Some of these risk factors
could include: Relationship factors- These factors could involve martial conflicts,
dominance and control of the relationship with partner, economic stress and
unhealthy family relationships. Societal factors- These factors could include traditional
gender norms. Community factors- These factors could include poverty and associated
factors, low social capital-lack of institutions, relationships and norms that shape a
community’s social interactions and weak community sanctions against IPV. Individual
Risk Factors- These factors could include unemployment, anger, antisocial personality
traits and desire for power and control in relationships.
- Sexual assault
- Risk factors for women for sexual assault could
include: Alcohol or drug use and past experiences of
sexual abuse or assault. It is important to remember
though that no woman is sexually assaulted because
she lives, acts or dresses in a certain way. The risk
factors for sexual assault only increase the chance
that a sexual assault could occur and does not mean
the woman is to blame for the sexual assault. Risk
factors (which might predict men’s inclination to
sexually assault) could include: Alcohol or drug use
and fantasies supporting sexual violence. These risk
factors have been found to have an addictive effect to
the perpetrator (the more risk factors which are
present, the higher the chance that sexual violence in
some form may occur).
- "A person
commits
sexual
assault if
they
intentionally
touch
another
person, the
touching is
sexual and
the person
does not
consent."
- Risk factors for women for sexual assault could
include: Alcohol or drug use and past experiences of
sexual abuse or assault. It is important to remember
though that no woman is sexually assaulted because
she lives, acts or dresses in a certain way. The risk
factors for sexual assault only increase the chance
that a sexual assault could occur and does not mean
the woman is to blame for the sexual assault. Risk
factors (which might predict men’s inclination to
sexually assault) could include: Alcohol or drug use
and fantasies supporting sexual violence. These risk
factors have been found to have an addictive effect to
the perpetrator (the more risk factors which are
present, the higher the chance that sexual violence in
some form may occur).
- Intimate partner violence
- LO3.2- Explain the existing
protective measures for victims
of partner violence and sexual
assault
- Victims of partner violence and sexual assault
- Victims of partner violence and sexual
assault is recognised as a serious offence
with negative impacts on the social
community and the rights of individuals. This
also requires efficient and strong responses
from government bodies and civil society
organisations who have to deal with these
issues. The police therefore in their conduct
have to adhere to the following principles
which are defined in the general protocol for
action and cooperation of institutions, bodies
and organisations in the situations of partner
violence and sexual assault. This includes:
- “1. The Victim’s security (safety) is the
priority 2. To ensure the wellbeing and safety
of children by ensuring support and safety 3.
The perpetrator is entirely responsible for
violent behaviour. 4. All interventions should
take into account the inequality of power
between the victim and the perpetrator of
domestic violence. 5. Respect the needs,
rights and dignity of the victim. 6. Emergency
of procedure is in accordance with the
assessed danger of the situation and
vulnerability of the victim. 7. Institutions,
within their roles, competencies and
missions, shall be responsible to stop
violence and undertake protection
measures. 8. Raise professional
competencies through planned education
and promotion of best practice examples.”
- “1. The Victim’s security (safety) is the
priority 2. To ensure the wellbeing and safety
of children by ensuring support and safety 3.
The perpetrator is entirely responsible for
violent behaviour. 4. All interventions should
take into account the inequality of power
between the victim and the perpetrator of
domestic violence. 5. Respect the needs,
rights and dignity of the victim. 6. Emergency
of procedure is in accordance with the
assessed danger of the situation and
vulnerability of the victim. 7. Institutions,
within their roles, competencies and
missions, shall be responsible to stop
violence and undertake protection
measures. 8. Raise professional
competencies through planned education
and promotion of best practice examples.”
- Victims of partner violence and sexual
assault is recognised as a serious offence
with negative impacts on the social
community and the rights of individuals. This
also requires efficient and strong responses
from government bodies and civil society
organisations who have to deal with these
issues. The police therefore in their conduct
have to adhere to the following principles
which are defined in the general protocol for
action and cooperation of institutions, bodies
and organisations in the situations of partner
violence and sexual assault. This includes:
- Victims of partner violence and sexual assault
- LO3.4- Evaluate
criminological theory in
relation to intimate
partner violence and
sexual assault
- Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1986, 1995) ecological theory of individual development considers that
human development occurs though interactions that continually evolve between individuals and
their multiple interconnected environmental backgrounds.
- Bronfenbrenner’s model separates
environmental influences into levels These
levels reflect the, “multiple levels reflecting
the relative size, immediacy of interaction,
and degree of formality/informality of the
environmental setting.” – (Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral G, 2011, p.3) The
individual levels comprise, “bio-psycho-social
characteristics of the person, the
microsystem focuses on direct interpersonal
interactions between individuals and
members of their immediate environment
such as families, friends, and peers” –
(Campbell R & Dworkin E & Cabral G, 2011,
p.3) The microsystem focuses on, “direct
interpersonal interactions between
individuals and members of their immediate
environment such as families, friends, and
peers; the mesosystem reflects
interconnections and linkages between
individuals and between individuals and
systems” – (Campbell R & Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3)
- The exosystem
includes,
“organizations and
social systems (e.g.,
legal, medical, and
mental health)” –
(Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3) The
macrosystem
includes, “societal
norms,
expectations, and
beliefs that form the
broader social
environment” –
(Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3) The
chronosystem
encompasses, “the
changes that occur
over time between
persons and their
multiple
environments” –
(Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3)
- The exosystem
includes,
“organizations and
social systems (e.g.,
legal, medical, and
mental health)” –
(Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3) The
macrosystem
includes, “societal
norms,
expectations, and
beliefs that form the
broader social
environment” –
(Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3) The
chronosystem
encompasses, “the
changes that occur
over time between
persons and their
multiple
environments” –
(Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3)
- Bronfenbrenner 1979 states that , “The
ecology of human development lies at a
point of convergence among the disciplines
of the biological, psychological, and social
sciences as they bear on the evolution of
the individual in society” -(Bronfenbrenner,
1979, p.13)
- The concept that development is
influenced by the environment was
already familiar according to
Bronfenbrenner.
- “The ecology of human development
involves the scientific study of the
progressive, mutual accommodation
between an active growing human being
and the changing properties of the
immediate settings in which the
developing person lives, as this process is
affected by relations between these
setting, and by the larger contexts in
which the settings are
embedded”-(Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 21)
- Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory has clearly influenced
criminology in relation to intimate partner violence and sexual
assault. It has helped understand the reciprocal interactions
between systems which influence development. Also, ecological
theory has helped inform the more minute interactional
attachment formation processes that occur between individuals.
- The concept that development is
influenced by the environment was
already familiar according to
Bronfenbrenner.
- Bronfenbrenner’s model separates
environmental influences into levels These
levels reflect the, “multiple levels reflecting
the relative size, immediacy of interaction,
and degree of formality/informality of the
environmental setting.” – (Campbell R &
Dworkin E & Cabral G, 2011, p.3) The
individual levels comprise, “bio-psycho-social
characteristics of the person, the
microsystem focuses on direct interpersonal
interactions between individuals and
members of their immediate environment
such as families, friends, and peers” –
(Campbell R & Dworkin E & Cabral G, 2011,
p.3) The microsystem focuses on, “direct
interpersonal interactions between
individuals and members of their immediate
environment such as families, friends, and
peers; the mesosystem reflects
interconnections and linkages between
individuals and between individuals and
systems” – (Campbell R & Dworkin E & Cabral
G, 2011, p.3)
- Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1986, 1995) ecological theory of individual development considers that
human development occurs though interactions that continually evolve between individuals and
their multiple interconnected environmental backgrounds.
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