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Mind Map by chloe galambos, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by chloe galambos
about 8 years ago
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Psyc 104 Ch 2: The Research Enterprise in Psychology
- Qualitative Research
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- Researching the meaning of a specific experience. Researchers tend to let the meaning of the experience emerge from the data collected in the study, rather than working with clearly defined variables.
- Quantitative Research
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- Examine cause and effect situations. The variables used in the study are usually defined in advance. The data is also numerical. Researchers make empirical observations, and report them as narratives. This kind of research is currently dominant in the field of psychology.
- Main Goals of the Scientific enterprise
- #1
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- Measurement and Description: Developing measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behavior.
- #2
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- Understanding and Prediction: Understanding the events, and explaining the reasons for the occurrence of the events. Development of a hypothesis.
- #3
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- Application and Control: Applying research findings to practical problems. Development of a testable theory, which helps to develop a hypothesis. If the findings of a study support the hypothesis, confidence in the theory grows. If the findings do not support the hypothesis, confidence in the theory decreases, and the theory may be revised of discarded.
- Steps in a Scientific Investigation
- #2
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- Select the Research Method and Design the Study: Finding out how to put the hypothesis into an empirical test. Must select the strategy that is most appropriate and practical. Participants/subjects are those whose behavior is systematically observed in a study.
- #1
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- Form a Testable Hypothesis: Usually expressed as predictions. The hypothesis must be formulated precisely, and the variables must be clearly defined. The operational definition describes the actions that will be used to measure or control a variable. It is important to establish exactly what is meant by each variable in the study.
- #4
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- Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions: Observations are usually transformed into numbers which constitute the raw data of the study. Statistics are used to analyze the data and decide whether their hypothesis is supported or rejected.
- #5
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- Report the Findings: Researchers write a concise summary of their findings. A journal is a periodical that publishes technical material in a narrowly defined area of study.
- #3
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- Collect the Data: Data collection techniques are procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.
- Data Collection Techniques in Psychology
- Direct Observation
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- Observers watch and record behavior as objectively and precisely as possible. May use some instrumentation.
- Questionnaire
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- A series of written questions are administered, which are designed to obtain information about specific aspects of the subject's behavior.
- Interview
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- Face to Face dialogue is conducted to obtain information about the subject's behavior.
- Psychological Recording
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- An instrument is used to record a specific psychological process in the subject.
- Examination of Archival Records
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- Existing institutional records are analyzed.
- Psychological Test
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- A standardized measure is administered to obtain a sample of the subject's behavior. Usually used to asses mental abilities and personality traits.
- Direct Observation
- Advantages
of the
Scientific
Approach
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- Clarity and Precision: researchers must specify exactly what they mean when they formulate their hypothesis. This enhances communication. Relative Intolerance of Error: Researchers must demand objective data and thorough documentation before they accept ideas. Tends to yield more accurate and dependable information.
- Experimental Research
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- The experiment is a research method in which the researcher manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions, and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.
- Independent Variable
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- The condition or event that the researcher varies in order to see a result in another variable.
- Dependent Variable
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- The variable that is thought to be effected by the independent variable. Usually a measurement of an aspect of the subject's behavior.
- Experimental Group
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- Consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment with regard to the independent variable.
- Control Group
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- Consists of the subjects who do not receive special treatment with regard to the independent variable.
- Variations in Designing Experiments
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- Only one group of subjects is used, and they are exposed to two different conditions. This is referred to within-subjects design because comparisons are made within the same group of participants.Two or more independent groups are exposed to a manipulation of the independent variable. This is called between-subjects design. The manipulation of more than one independent variable in a single experiment, to examine their joint effects on the dependent variable. More than one dependent variable is used in a single study. Develops a more complete picture of how the independent variable affects the subject's behavior.
- Extraneous Variables
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- Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a study.
- Confounding of Variables
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- Occurs when two variables are liked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.
- Random Assignment
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- All subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to group or condition in the study.
- Advantages
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- Develops conclusions about cause and effect relationships between variables. The researcher is able to isolate the relationship between the variables, while neutralizing the effects of extraneous variables.
- Disadvantages
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- Experiments are artificial, and doubts can arise about the applicability of the findings to everyday behavior. This can be resolved by conducting a field experiment which observes more realistic conditions. This may require the sacrifice of some control over extraneous variables in favor of greater generalizability. Some factors can not be manipulated due to ethical concerns or practical realities.
- Descriptive/Correlational Research
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- Lack of control over the variables means that the researchers can not display cause and effect relationships.
- Naturalistic Observation
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- The researcher engages in careful observation of behavior, without intervening directly with the subjects. The behavior is allowed to unfold naturally. This allows researchers to observe behaviors in less artificial conditions. Is used to study animal behavior. Reactivity occurs when the researcher's presence alters the behavior of the subject.
- Case Studies
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- An in-depth investigation of an individual subject. Appropriate for studying psychological issues, and neuropsychological issues. Provide compelling real-life illustrations to add to the study. This method can also be highly subjective, which can allow the researcher to see what they what to see rather than what is really there.
- Surveys
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- Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about the subject's behavior. Often used to collect information on behaviors that are difficult to view directly. This method depends on self-report data, which may result in deceptive results.
- Advantages
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- This method gives researchers a way to explore questions which can not be answered with experimental procedures.
- Disadvantages
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- Researchers can not control events to isolate cause and effect. Can not demonstrate conclusively that two variables are related. Do not know if the results are due to the variables in the study, or other unmentioned variables(third variable problem).
- #2
- #1
- Ethics
Annotations:
- Responsibility to protect the rights of others. Responsibility to provide safeguards to protect the vulnerable and ensure that consent is given. Make sure that research benefits those participating in the study. Emphasize integrity in their relationships with clients. Recognize that psychology has the responsibility to increase knowledge, and increase general welfare. Minimize the discomfort of animals, and limit their use to when a beneficial outcome is certain.
- Statistics
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- The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data.
- Descriptive Statistics
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- Used to organize and summarize data. Provides an overview of numerical data.
- Central Tendency
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- Consists of three measures. Median: Score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores. Mean: The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution(Add all scores and divide by number of scores).Mode: Most frequent score in a distribution. Mean is the most useful of the three. A frequency polygon is a line figure to present data. Negatively Skewed Distribution: Most scores pile up at the high end of the scale. Positively Skewed Distribution: Most scores pile up at the low end of the scale. Median usually is the most accurate.
- Variability
Annotations:
- Refers to how much the scores deviate from the mean, and from each other. Standard Deviation: Index of the amount of variability in a set of data.(High variability=high SD) Normal Distribution: Symmetrical curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed throughout the population.(most scores fall near the mean) (Can be converted into a percentile score)
- Correlation
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- Exists when two variables are related to each other. Correlation Coefficient: Numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. (Indicates the direction, and the strength of the relationship) Positive Correlation: two variables co-vary in the same direction. (positive sign) Negative Correlation: Two variables co-vary in the opposite direction. (negative sign) Size of the coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship (-1.00-+1.00) As the strength of the correlation increases, the ability to predict a variable based on another variable increases. Correlation: two variables are related. Causation: Cause and effect (how two variables are connected)
- Inferential Statistics
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- Used to interpret data and draw conclusions. Used to evaluate the possibility that results are due to the fluctuations of chance. Statistical Significance: Exists when the probability that results are due to chance is very low.
- Meta-Analysis
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- The combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size, and consistency of a variable's effects.
- Placebo Effect
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- Occurs when participants' expectations lead them to experience some change even though they received fake treatment.
- Distortions in Self-Report Data
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- Social Desirability Bias: Tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself. Response Set: The tendency to answer questions in a way that is unrelated to the context of the question. Halo Effect: When a person's overall impression of an organization or person influences more specific ratings.
- Experimenter Bias
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- Occurs when the researcher's expectations about the outcome influence the results obtained. Double-Blind Test: When neither the subjects nor the researcher knows which participants have been sorted into which group.
- Sampling Bias
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- Exists when a sample is not representative of the population rom which it was drawn.
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