Introduction to Human Sciences (GEO1410)

Humans as animals
1. Studying humans
  1. social sciences/humanities perspective vs/ natural sciences perspective
  2. Darwinian perspectives on human behaviour
    1. behavioural biologists have been successful in explaining animal behaviour on the basis of fitness maximisation
      1. is it possible to predict human behaviour in the same way?
    2. human brains are the product of natural selection
      1. evolution by natural selection
        limited resources + heritable advantageous traits = adaptation
        animal design is affected by previous lineages (eg. rabbits can't produce birds), laws of physics., and trade-offs (eg. body size and flight maneuverability in birds)
    3. Darwinian evolution
      1. living individuals are descendants of other individuals that lived in the past
      2. evolution occurs through cumulative change over a long period of time
      3. new forms occur via splitting of lineages
      4. natural selection is an engine of change
2. challenging the model
  1. genealogies
    1. fossils
    2. living forms
    3. biogeography
  2. differences between organisms should reflect their niches
    1. eg. comparative approach with African weaver birds
  3. individuals should possess advantageous characteristics for solving day-to-day problems
    1. eg. optimality (utility) theory
    2. eg. evolutionary game theory
Studying behaviour scientifically
1. behaviour: the measurable response of an organism to stimuli from its environment
  1. how can this be quantified?
2. why study animal behaviour?
  1. links physiology and morphology of an organism to its environment
  2. essential for reproduction, therefore under strong natural selection
    1. ideal for studying evolutionary mechanisms
  3. crucial for effective conservation in natural and captive situations
  4. important for production of domestic animals and training of companion animals
  5. provides insights into human health and behaviour
3. history of studying behaviour
  1. Darwin
    1. based studies on description and observation
  2. behaviourists (eg. Thorndike, Watson, Skinner)
    1. based studies on controlled laboratory experiments on a small range of animal;s
  3. ethologists (eg. Lorenz, von Frisch, Tinbergen)
    1. based studies on observations in the natural world on a range of animals
  4. pyschology
    1. behaviourism, similar to the work of behaviourists
    2. comparative, study different animals in order to understand humans
      1. eg. studies of animal intelligence
  5. ethology
  6. behavioural ecology
  7. applied
    1. for purposes of welfare research and animal science
      1. studious
  8. behavioural biology (present)
4. Tinbergen's 4 whys
  1. proximate
    1. explanations for the existence of behaviours over an animal's lifetime
    2. development (ontogeny)
      1. how did the behaviour develop in the organism's lifetime?
        eg. learned, product of sexual maturity
    3. mechanism (causation)
      1. why is the organism exhibiting the behaviour right now?
  2. ultimate
    1. explanations for the existence of behaviours over a lineage (over evolutionary time)
    2. evolution (phylogeny)
      1. where/how did this behaviour develop over time?
    3. function (adaptation)
      1. what value does the behaviour provide to the fitness of the lineage as a whole?
5. adaptation: a trait that increases the fitness of the animal compared to its alternatives
  1. "design"
6. confusions in evolutionary theory
  1. sex ratios in animal populations
  2. infanticide in primates
  3. incest avoidance
Primate diversity and ecology
1. why do we study primates?
  1. reasoning by homology (phylogenetic approach)
    1. humans ARE primates and share similarities due to common descent
  2. reasoning by analogy (functional approach)
    1. primates provide models for how ecological pressures shaped adaptations in environments occupied by human ancestors
      1. primates are diverse in body size, habitat, diet, social organisation, and activity patterns - how did evolution shape these behaviours?
  3. shared characteristics between primates and humans
    1. grasping hands
    2. developed vision
    3. long juvenile periods
    4. relatively large brain
    5. physiological and cognitive structures
    6. behaviour
2. what is a primate?
  1. characteristics:
    1. grasping hands and feet
    2. nails instead of claws
    3. hind-limb-driven locomotion
    4. reduced olfaction, enhanced vision
    5. forward-facing eyes encased in bone
    6. relatively large brain
    7. long gestation
    8. small litters (one or two)
    9. long juvenile period
    10. long lifespan
    11. increased dependence on learning and behavioural flexibility
  2. primate biogeography
    1. mostly forest-dwelling, arboreal animals in tropical areas
    2. modern range: Americas, Africa, Asia
    3. ancient range: North America, Europe
3. primate taxonomy
  1. about 300 different species of primates in the world
    1. not all equally related to one another
  2. can be split into two suborders based on genetic and morphological data
    1. strepsirrhines
      1. wet-nosed (do not have an upper lip)
    2. haplorhines
      1. dry-nosed (have an upper lip)
4. primate phylogeny
  1. Lemurs
    1. used to be very diverse, but many species are now extinct
      1. now exist mainly in Madagascar
    2. tend to have female-dominant societies
    3. diverse in size and locomotion
  2. Lorises (lorisoformes)
    1. Africa and Asia
    2. split into galagos (bush babies) and lorises
    3. small, arboreal, nocturnal
  3. Tarsius (tarsiformes)
    1. Asia
    2. small, nocturnal, insect-eaters
    3. vertical clingers and leapers
  4. New World monkeys (Platyrrhines)
    1. south and central America
  5. FINISH FOR REVISION
5. primate ecology
  1. how do primates survive?
    1. how do they find enough food to survive and reproduce?
    2. how do they avoid becoming food for predators?
  2. what is the relationship between ecology, social organisation, and behaviour in primates?
  3. primate diets
    1. how much food is required per unit of time affects how the day is organised
      1. how much food is required is affected by:
        basal metabolic rate: the rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to maintain vital functions such as breathing and keeping warm
        active metabolic rate: the rate at which the body uses energy while active, such as when hunting or grooming
        growth rate
        reproductive effort
    2. primates require:
      1. carbohydrates (produced by plants)
      2. amino acids (proteins)
      3. fats and oils (from seeds, insects, and animal prey)
      4. vitamins and minerals
      5. water
    3. primates must avoid toxins such as those found in adult leaves
    4. insectivores
      1. small body size
      2. sharp cusps on teeth
      3. high, sharp crests of molar teeth
      4. simple digestive system
    5. folivores
      1. large body size
      2. small incisors
      3. sharp, shearing crests on molars
      4. enlarged, well-developed digestive systems
    6. frugivores
      1. medium body size
      2. large, broad incisors
      3. low-cusped, relatively flat molars
      4. relatively large digestive systems, but not specialised like that found in folivores
    7. gumnivore
      1. relatively small body size
      2. long, robust incisors to tap directly into the phloem of plants
      3. some have claws (Callitrichids)
    8. diets and home ranges
      1. how does the diet of a primate affect its home range?
        availability of food
        leaves and seeds are often more plentiful than fruit
        seasonality of food
        ripe fruit and leaves are not always present
  4. primate territoriality
    1. some primates are quite territorial
      1. home ranges do not overlap, and territories are defended aggressively
      2. territorial in order to defend mates (primarily males) and defend resources (primarily females)
    2. some primates are not territorial
      1. home ranges overlap
    3. whether a primate is territorial or not depends on the cost of defending an area and the benefits gained by protecting limited resources/mates
  5. predation
    1. threats from:
      1. snakes
      2. big cats
      3. birds of prey
      4. crocodiles and alligators
    2. defenses against predation
      1. interspecific associations, eg. between deer and primates
      2. small, terrestrial primates are the most susceptible
        in areas where many felids or raptors exist, primates become more arboreal (eg. in South American forests), and in areas with few felids and raptors, primates evolve larger body size and group size (eg. Asian forests)
      3. vocalisations (eg. vervet monkeys)
      4. increased group size
        detection: more eyes to spot a predator
        deference: mobbing behaviour
        dilution: individual risk of death is lower
  6. primate sociality
    1. why are primates social?
      1. predator avoidance
      2. feeding competition
        can defend food patches
        female distribution is related to resource distribution = female social groups
      3. can be costly as there is more competition for food and mates, and disease transmission is more of a risk
    2. social groups
      1. solitary
      2. polygynous (one male, multiple females)
      3. pair-bonded
      4. polyandrous (multiple males, one female)
      5. polygynandrous (multiple males, multiple females)
Primate mating systems
1. mating systems: the ways animals find mates and care for offspring
2. basic rules for mammals (though there are some different variations in primates)
  1. sexual reproduction
  2. female gestation
  3. female lactation
3. language of adaptive explanations
  1. strategy: evolved behaviours that are the product of natural selection
  2. costs and benefits: trade-offs in reproductive success
4. evolution of reproductive strategies: female
  1. variation in parental care in animals (eg. sea horses, frogs, birds, mammals)
    1. in mammals, female care is critical and male care varies
5. evolution of reproductive strategies: male
  1. trade-offs
    1. males can put energy into finding new mates if finding mates is relatively easy and if offspring can be raised by one parent, or put energy into helping offspring survive
6. reproductive strategies: female
  1. female primates invest heavily in offspring
    1. gestation
      1. long pregnancies
      2. brain growth is energetically expensive
    2. lactation
      1. long infant periods
      2. energetically expensive (can cost up to 8x basal metabolic rate)
  2. very few offspring
    1. quality over quantity
  3. what influences female reproductive success?
    1. resource abundance
      1. more food = more offspring (shown in macaque provisioning studies)
    2. maturity
      1. young mothers have to allocate energy towards their own growth
        50% higher infant mortality rate
        lack of experience
      2. older mothers may be undergoing senescence (the process of deterioration of the body with age) so may not be fit to carry offspring
    3. longevity (how long an individual lives)
      1. the longer a primate lives, the more opportunities it has to produce offspring)
      2. accounts for 50-70% of variance
    4. group size
      1. smaller groups tend to have higher reproductive success
    5. rank
      1. higher ranked females tend to have more offspring
        higher ranking females get greater access to resources
      2. rank is determined using a dominance matrix to identify relationships of dominance within groups
    6. sociality
      1. females with more social bonds produce more offspring
        eg. female baboons with strong social bonds have greater reproductive success, and live longer
7. reproductive trade-offs
  1. resources are limited
    1. allocation of energy to one offspring comes at the expense of others
    2. there is a trade-off between quantity and quality of offspring
    3. eg. lactational amennorhea prevents pregnancy while a female is lactating
      1. weaning allows females to get pregnant again
  2. weaning
    1. infants become more independent
    2. nursing is gradually reduced
    3. energy becomes available for the mother to conceive again
    4. time of weaning varies in different primates
8. sexual selection and male mating strategies
  1. limiting factors for reproductive success
    1. in females: adequate resources
    2. in males: access to females
  2. sexual dimorphism: distinct differences in size or appearances between the two sexes
    1. eg. the tail feathers of a male peacock
  3. sexual selection
    1. because of high sexual selection in some species, a lot of resources go towards increasing a male's mating success rather than going to females to increase reproductive success
    2. arguably stronger than natural selection, but both may balance out over time
      1. eg. large tail feathers in peacocks = difficulty flying = more likely to be eaten by predators, so only peacocks with tail feathers below a certain range can survive to breed
    3. male reproductive success is more variable than females
  4. intrasexual selection
    1. male competition
      1. eg. stags during the rut
    2. dominant males gain access to females
  5. intersexual selection
    1. female choice
      1. the female selects the most attractive male
  6. sexual dimorphism and mating systems
    1. pair-bonds have little male-male competition, so there is little dimorphism
    2. polygynous groups have huge body and canine dimorphism
    3. polygynandrous groups have large dimorphism
  7. sperm competition and mating systems
    1. polygynandrous groups
      1. estrus females mate with many males, therefore males with larger sperm volume have a greater chance of fathering offspring
        selects for testes size
  8. investing males
    1. pair-bonding
      1. mate guarding (mates may "cheat"), eg. by grooming often
      2. increased parental investment in offspring
    2. cooperative breeding
      1. males and other individuals in the group help to raise the young
        eg. marmosets and tamarins often have twins, so the mother can increase fertility/survival rate by having helpers
      2. humans are cooperative breeders
  9. male-male competiton
    1. behavioural flexibility in primates
    2. in polygynandrous groups, males establish a dominance hierarchy
      1. higher ranking individuals have greater reproductive success
    3. infanticide
      1. death of an infant accelerates the return of a female to sexual receptivity/lactational amenorrhea)
      2. 85% of deaths follow takeover by a new male
      3. unweaned infants primarily targeted
      4. rarely done by sexually active males in the group
      5. in 45-70% of cases, males mated with the same female
      6. infanticide is not reproductively beneficial for females, therefore they have evolved counterstrategies
        paternity confusion
        male friendships
        male protects female in return for grooming
        studies show that female stress rises if the female does not have a male friend during a takeover
9. naturalistic fallacy
  1. what we see in nature is not necessarily "correct"
    1. explanations do not equal justifications
Primates to Hominins
1. origin and evolution of mammals
  1. early Triassic period
    1. Therapsids
      1. 225 million years ago
        overlapped with dinosaurs
      2. warm-blooded, fur-covered reptiles
      3. egg-layers, did not produce milk
      4. around for 30-40 million years
  2. late Triassic, early Jurassic period
    1. first mammals
      1. dinosaurs ruled
      2. oviparous (laid eggs)
  3. end of Cretaceous
    1. dinosaurs extinct, increase of mammal radiation into new niches
2. origin of primates
  1. angiosperm hypothesis
    1. the adaptive radiation of primates occurred with the radiation of angiosperms (flowering plants) that offered new opportunities and an unexplored niche
      1. omnivores adapted more flexible hands to handle fruit
  2. visual predation hypothesis
    1. omnivores adapted orbital convergence (eyes moved from sides of head to front) in order to forage for fruit nocturnally
  3. leaping hypothesis
    1. primate biomechanics for leaping and grasping were favoured
  4. generalised nocturnal characteristics (large forward-facing eyes, grasping hands and feet) were favoured
  5. terminal branch hypothesis
    1. evolved to better meet the needs of an arboreal lifestyle (vision, leaping, grasping hands and feet)
3. evolution of early primates
  1. Plesiadapiformes
    1. frugivore
    2. no opposable thumbs
    3. nails on one toe, claws on the others
    4. long, narrow snout
    5. small brain
    6. large incisors
  2. Eocene period
    1. earth was warm and wet
      1. tropical forests spread into North America and Europe
    2. evolution of two types of primates (it is not possible to say which came first)
      1. Adapids
        possible Strepsirrhine ancestor (wet-nosed primate)
        larger than Omomyids
        diurnal and quadrupedal
      2. Omomyids
        possible Haplorhine ancestor (dry-nosed primate)
        possible tarsier ancestor (even though tarsiers are strepsirrhines)
        nocturnal
        some leapers
4. evolution of Haplorhines and Anthropoids
  1. evolution in Fayum, Egypt during the Eocene/Oligocene boundary (33-36 million years ago)
    1. Oligopithecids (anthropoids/ape dentition 2-1-2-3)
    2. Parapithecids (new world monkey dentition 2-1-3-3)
  2. Propliopithecids (group with many genera)
    1. Propliopithecus
    2. Aegyptopithecus
      1. 2-1-2-3 (old world monkey dentition)
      2. frugivorous
      3. sexually dimorphic, suggests sexual selection
      4. arboreal quadrupeds
      5. diurnal
      6. relatively small brain
5. evolution of the Platyrrhines (new world monkeys)
  1. little evidence of NW monkeys during the Eocene
    1. possibly just due to a misleading fossil record
  2. we do not know how primates moved from Africa to the Americas
6. origin and evolution of the apes
  1. evolved during the Miocene (5-23 million years ago)
    1. "hominoids"
    2. changed from a warm and wet climate to dry and cool
  2. apes vs. monkeys
    1. no tail
    2. forelimb suspension
    3. short, stiff lower back
    4. mobile joints
    5. long arms and fingers
  3. the earliest apes
    1. apelike characteristics mixed with monkey characteristics, to varying degrees of intensity
    2. Moropithecus
      1. evolved in Uganda, 20 million years ago
      2. apelike face and teeth
      3. mobility at shoulder
      4. stiff lower back
      5. femur indicates slow climbing
    3. Proconsul
      1. evolved in Africa, 17-23 million years ago
      2. frugivorous
      3. lived in forest environments
      4. apelike skull and teeth, but monkeylike postcrania
        quadrupedal, non-suspensory
    4. mid-Miocene (10-15 million years ago)
      1. Nacholapithecus and Kenyapithecus in Africa
      2. Sivapithecus in Asia
      3. Dryopithecus, Oreopithecus and Pierolapithecus
        Pierolapithicus
        found in Spain, evolved 13 million years ago
        apelike face and teeth
        wide torso, stiff lower back, mobile wrist
        short palm and fingers, unlike modern apes
    5. late Miocene
      1. the last common ancestor of African apes lived 8-10 million years ago in Africa
      2. Chororapithecus (10 million years ago, Ethiopia)
      3. Nakalapithecus (9.8 million years ago, Kenya)
7. from hominoid to hominin
  1. what is unique about humans?
    1. bipedal (walk on two legs)
    2. small canines and large molars with thick enamel
    3. large brains
    4. very slow life histories, long juvenile period
    5. language, symbolic culture
  2. Sahelanthropus
    1. evolved in Chad, Africa, 6-7 million years ago
    2. hominin characteristics?
      1. foramen magnum (where spine joins/goes into skull) suggests bipedality
      2. chimpanzee-sized brain
      3. small canines
      4. flat face, large browridge
  3. Orrorin
    1. evolved in Kenya, Africa, 6 million years ago
    2. preferred a mix of woodland and savannah
    3. hominin characteristics?
      1. femur suggests bipedality
      2. chimpanzee-like teeth
  4. Ardipithecus kadabba
    1. evolved in Ethiopia, Africa, 5.2-5.8 million years ago
    2. hominin characteristics?
      1. toe bone suggests bipedality
      2. canine sharpens against lower premolar
  5. Ardipithecus ramidus
    1. evolved in Ethiopia, Africa, 4.4 million years ago
    2. preferred a woodland habitat
    3. hominin characteristics?
      1. bipedality suggested by skull, pelvis, and foot
      2. climbing suggested by hand, foot, and pelvis
      3. small brain
      4. small canines
      5. teeth
        smaller incisors than frugivorous chimps
        unsharpened canines, not dimorphic
        molars were thinner than modern humans', thicker enamel than African apes
      6. postcranial anatomy
        hands not adapted for knuckle walking
        grasping toes, stiff feet for bipedalism
        lower part of pelvis was apelike, ilium adapted for bipedalism
  6. why were hominins bipedal?
    1. feeding
      1. allows individuals to reach higher when on the ground to collect food
      2. allows more powerful movement through trees
    2. energetics
      1. bipedalism saves energy
    3. thermoregulation
      1. less solar radiation (may be linked to change in habitat preference from woodland to savannah)
      2. however, more affected by wind
    4. carrying and provisioning
    5. fighting
  7. Australopithecus anamensis
    1. evolved in Kenya and Ethiopia, 3.9-4.2 million years ago
    2. preferred grassy woodland environments
    3. bipedality suggested by tibia
    4. canines smaller than modern apes
  8. Australopithecus afarensis
    1. thought to have evolved from A. anamensis
    2. evolved in Ethiopia and Tanzania, 3-3.6 million years ago
    3. preferred wooded grassland
    4. smaller canines and larger molars than A. anamensis
    5. bipedal
    6. body size dimorphism
    7. partial skeletons found (Lucy) and Dikika child (Selam)
      1. Dikika child
        found in Dikika, Ethiopia, 3.3 million years old
        3 year old female
        bipedal, may have climbed trees
        had a hyoid (humans have specialised hyoids in the throat that enable speech, Selam had a chimpanzee hyoid)
        slower brain maturation
  9. Australopithecus africanus
    1. Taung child
      1. foramen magnum suggests bipedality
      2. small canines
      3. scientists expected hominins to have evolved large brains quite early, but the child had a small brain
    2. Sterkfontein cave
      1. hundreds of fossils found
        Mrs Ples, Little Foot
    3. evolved in South Africa, 2.2-3 million years ago
    4. preferred wooded grassland
    5. similar cranium to A. afarensis, but with bigger molars and smaller canines
    6. bipedal
    7. rapid tooth development
  10. Australopithecus garhi
    1. evolved in east Africa, 2.5 million years ago
    2. cranium
      1. small brain (450cc)
      2. sagittal crest
      3. large teeth
    3. longer legs
    4. may have used stone tools
  11. Australopithecus sediba
    1. found in Malapa cave in South Africa, evolved 1.8-2 million years ago
    2. small brain, small teeth
    3. long arms, primitive teeth
    4. derived pelvis and hands, suggests that hominids evolved directly from A sediba
  12. Paranthropus
    1. "the robust Australopiths"
    2. cranial adaptations
      1. enormous back teeth (made for hard-to-chew food?)
      2. sagittal crest, linked to large temporalis muscles (linked to stronger chewing)
      3. huge cheek bones (linked to stronger chewing)
    3. bipedal
    4. Paranthropus aethipicus
      1. evolved in Kenya, 2.5 million years ago
    5. Paranthropus boisei
      1. evolved/lived in Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia
      2. hyper-robust
      3. ate seeds, roots and tubers
    6. Paranthropus robustus
      1. evolved in South Africa, 1-1.8 million years ago
      2. cranial and dental adaptations for heavy chewing
      3. bipedal
      4. extended period of growth in males
    7. Kenyanthropus
      1. evolved in Kenya, 3.2-3.5 million years ago
      2. cranial adaptations
        small brain
        flat face
        small molars
      3. possible alternative to hominids evolving from Australopithecus
8. hominin phylogenies
  1. two theories, either could be correct at the moment
The rise of modern humans
1. early Homo
  1. about 2.3 million years ago
  2. evolved in Africa
  3. larger brains
  4. smaller teeth
  5. Australopithecus limb proportions
  6. rapid development
  7. Homo habilis
    1. "handyman"
      1. evidence of tool use
    2. evolved in east and south Africa, 1.4-2.3 million years ago
    3. diverse species with large size differences
      1. may have been two separate species, Homo rudolfensis
    4. sexual dimorphism
  8. Homo ergaster
    1. evolved from early Homo 0.6-1.8 million years ago
    2. Homo erectus may have evolved from it
    3. morphology:
      1. skull
        primitive postorbital constriction, no chin, receding forehead
        derived brain (larger), smaller jaws and teeth
        unique browridge and occipital torus
      2. postcrania
        long legs, narrow hips, barrel chest
        modern human body proportions
        reduced sexual dimorphism
        possible limited language
        terrestrial biped, may have been a runner
    4. first to radiate out of Africa
      1. Dmanisi, Georgia
        1.8 million years old
        4 skulls found (600-775cc brains)
        homo-like postcrania
        oldowan stone tools
  9. Homo erectus
    1. discovered in late 1800s by Eugene Dubois
    2. first fossil evidence for an ape-human transitional species
    3. cranial differences with H. ergaster (there are theories that H. ergaster and H. erectus were the same species)
      1. thicker skull
      2. more massive face
      3. more pronounced occipital torus and browridge
      4. sagittal keel
    4. found in Java, thought to have evolved as a lineage in Asia
    5. existed at a time where the climate was cooler and more variable
      1. may have been shorter and stockier to reduce heat loss
  10. early Middle Pleistocene climate (130-900 thousand years ago)
    1. climate cooler and more variable
    2. glaciation of Europe and North America during ice ages
    3. short interglacials
  11. Homo heidelbergensis
    1. H. ergaster in Asia and western Eurasia evolved into H. heidelbergensis
      1. larger brain
      2. larger browridge
      3. no chin
      4. prognathic face (protrusion of the mandible)
  12. Homo floriensis
    1. "hobbits"
    2. found on the island of Flores in Indonesia, evolved 16-74 thousand years ago
    3. small-bodied, only 3ft tall
    4. small-brained (400cc, chimpanzee-sized)
    5. used sophisticated stone tools
    6. what is H. floriensis?
      1. ancestral lineage of early Homo?
      2. island dwarfism of H. erectus?
      3. diseased Homo sapiens?
2. Neanderthals
  1. lived in a fluctuating environment
    1. cooling trend
    2. Eurasia dominated by frigid grassland and many large mammals
  2. thought to have occurred around the same time as Homo sapiens (our early ancestors)
  3. lots of fossil remains available as they buried their dead
  4. anatomy:
    1. large brains (1500-1700cc, much larger than H. sapiens and modern humans, with a brain size of 1300cc)
    2. oblong skulls
      1. occipital bun
      2. thin-walled
    3. unique teeth
      1. taurodont roots (extra pulp, enabled them to repair themselves)
      2. heavily worn incisors
      3. suggests extensive use of teeth
        possible increase in meat consumption, use of tools between teeth
    4. short and stocky (helped to reduce loss of body heat)
    5. more robust limbs with more developed muscle attachments
    6. wide torso
    7. short arms and legs
3. the road to Homo sapiens
  1. Homo heidelbergensis evolved into Homo sapiens about 200,000 years ago
    1. there are many alternative theories as to how this happened, any proposed phylogenetic tree could be correct with current evidence
  2. morphological features of modern Homo sapiens
    1. large, round skull with high forehead
    2. small face and teeth
    3. protruding chin

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