Unit 2. Organisation of the Organism

2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation Organelles: internal membrane bound structures in cells that perform specific functions. Organelles are surrounded by a single or double membrane.   1. Cell Membrane: protects the cell and control what enters and leave the cell Partially permeable Composed of lipid bilayer made of phospholipid molecules, a very thin layer of protein & fat Proteins help materials move in and out of the cell Some carbohydrate chains attached to proteins serve as chemical signals to help cells recognize each other or for hormones or viruses to attach   2. Cell Wall: protects and supports the cell... prevents it from bursting Fully permeable Plant cell wall made of cellulose , Fungal cell wall made of chitin , Bacteria cell wall made of murein or peptidoglycan   3. Cytoplasm: site of metabolic reaction Includes everything between cell membrane and nucleus Jelly-like substance consisted of 70% water and other dissolved substances   4. Nucleus: controls all activities of the cell , stores genetic info in DNA to make proteins Surrounded by a double layer called the nuclear envelope containing pores Chromatin is the long strand of DNA in the nucleus, which coils and become short and thick during cell division to make chromosomes. Chromosomes contains information which is inherited from the parents to their offspring’s. They contain a string of genes. Genes are a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein. Nucleolus inside the nucleus makes ribosomes and RNA. It disappears during cell division.   5. Chloroplast: site of photosynthesis , contains a green pigment called chlorophyll Contains starch grains Double membrane organelle with an inner system of membranous sacs called thylakoids, containing chlorophyll. Each stack of thylakoids is called Granum.   6. Mitochondria: site of aerobic respiration Double membranes.. outer is smooth and inner has folds called cristae Breaks down energy in glucose to ATP for cell use Stores glycogen granules – Glycogen is the reserve fuel that it breaks down when needed Cells with high rates of metabolism require large numbers of mitochondria to provide sufficient energy Have their own DNA to make more when needed   7. Vacuoles: serves as a storage area for proteins, ions, wastes, and cell products Plant cells have large, permanent vacuoles containing cell sap (solution of sugars and other products).. many contain poisons to keep animals away A full vacuole creates turgor pressure keeping cell firm and turgid Animal cells have small, temporary vacuole. They’ve smaller membrane bound spaces called vesicles which may contain food or water   8. Lysosomes: also called suicidal bags Contain hydrolytic enzymes to digest materials Lysosome vesicles are formed from sacs that pinch off from the ends of Golgi (organelle that modifies, packages, & helps secrete cell products such as proteins and hormones. It receives products made by the ER )   9. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): site of protein synthesis Proteins are made by joining amino acids together in a long chain. Proteins are made based on the instructions carried on the DNA in cell’s nucleus that specify the sequence of amino acids that should be joined together to make a particular protein. Membranous tubules and sacs that transport molecules from one part of the cell to another, also connects nucleus with cell membrane May be free in cytoplasm or attached to RER Rough ER has embedded ribosomes on its surfaces for making proteins Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and helps to make lipids and fats Ribosomes are not organelles

2.2 Levels of Organisation​​​​​​​ Tissue: a group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a shared function Organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform specific functions Organ System: a group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body functions

2.3 Size of Specimens Magnification = Size of Image ÷ Size of Actual Length  Magnification is written in ‘times’ or with ‘X’ sign Length or size should be measured in micrometres ( μm ) or in millimeters ( mm ) , but not in centimeters ( cm ) .    1 cm =10 mm, 1cm= 10000 μm , 1mm= 1000 μm , 1 μm = 10-4 cm 1 μm = 10-3 mm