Human Origins Study Notes

Page 1

Geological Time Scale:

The organization of earth history into eras, periods and epochs; commonly used by geologists and paleoanthropologists. (Focusing on Cenozoic era, and the series and epochs in that one.)

Paleocene:

65-54 mya

1st primate-like mammals

Plesiadapiformes, purgatorius

Eocene:

POMA (primates of modern aspect)

Prosimian-like Adapids and Omomyids

Oligocene:

34-23 mya

Begin to see the ancestors of modern hominoids (apes, humans and our ancestors)

Aegyptopithecus (Found in Egypt)

Miocene

23-5 mya

Origin of hominids (modern or extinct bipedal primates of the family Hominidae) (Origin of the homo genes)

Golden Age of the Apes

Proconsul

Pliocene

5-1.7 mya

Adaptive radiation of hominids

Origin of the genus Homo

Pleistocene:

1.7-10,000

“Ice Age”

Evolution of the genus Homo

Holocene

10,000-present

Continental Drift: The movements of the continents on sliding plates of the earth’s surface. As a result, the positions of large land masses have severely shifted during time.

Late Paleozoic: continents came together and formed one large landmass called Pangea

Early Mesozoic:

Gondwanaland (southern)

Laurasia (northern)

Late Mesozoic: continents began to assume their current positions, animals became isolated

Mammalian Evolution

Mesozoic: dominated by reptiles

The Cenozoic: “The Age of the mammals”

Why such rapid succes?

Larger brains

Internal development (long-term)

Variation of dentition (heterodont dentition)

Maintenance of a constant internal body temperature

PALEOCENE:

65-54 mya

Sub-tropical climate near the equator

Worldwide warm temperatures

1st primate-like mammals

Plesiadapiforms (families): they resemble a lot of our modern strepsirhines

Plesiadapidae

Carpolestidae

Purgatorius

EOCENE:

54-34 mya

Ida: considered to be the missing link between the haplorhines and strepsirrhines. Thought to be an arboreal quadruped. Has an opposable toe, the same as chimps. Supposedly 47 mya

POMA:

Primates of Modern Aspect

Euprimates:

Adapidae (adapids): Notharctus (2:1:4:3) and Teilhardina

The “Big Cut”

Massive Extinction in marine and land animals

Tropical climate ---> Dry climates

10 million years forest changed to plains

OLIGOCENE:

Aegyptopithecus: Arboreal quadruped: bridges the gap between eocene fossils and the miocene fossils.

Comparison of Bilophodont Molars: bilophodont molars as found in cercopithecoids and Y-5 molars as seen in hominoids

MIOCENE

Golden age of hominoids (apes)

Divided into 3 periods:

Early: 25-20 mya

Mid: 19-11 mya

Late: 10-5 mya

Major changes in climate

Proconsul: belongs to the early Miocene (2:1:2:3)--arboreal quadruped.

Considered to be the ancestor of apes and humans

Different from Aegyptopithecus: Proconsul is new world monkeys and Aegyptopithecus is Old world monkeys

Kenyapithecus: belongs to mid Miocene

likely ancestral to modern apes

Sivapithecus: Late Miocene

Gigantopithecus: Largest known apes that ever lived (10 ft tall) (transition from Miocene to the Pleistocene.

LANEY’S NOTES FROM 3/1/16

HOMININ EVOLUTION I

www.becomoinghuman.org

Is there a missing link?

Missing Link: a fossil that exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and its derived descendants

Example: fossil linking modern humans to a primate ancestor

THERE IS NO MISSING LINK! It would be a constantly moving target. It is dependent upon currently existing forms.

We DO have Last common ancestors

Terminology:

Distinctive hominid characteristics include:

Bipedal locomotion

Large Brain size

Tool making behavior (later in time)

Mosaic Evolution: A pattern of evolution in which the rates of evolution in one functional system vary from those around it.

Paleoanthropology: The study of early humans

It is a diverse multidisciplinary pursuit seeking to reconstruct every bit of information possible concerning the dating, anatomy, behavior, and ecology of our hominid ancestors.

----------------------------------

The Messinian Crisis:

Occurs during the Miocene around 5.9 mya

Cooling and drying trend

The Mediterranean Sea went to nearly complete desiccation and became a salt basin

What African apes made it through the Miocene?

Kenyapithecus likely ancestor to African apes

Why did the monkeys survive?

They are small, their diet is much more efficient. (rely on less food)

Gorillas made it through:

Large body size

Eat leaves, foliage,

Metabolism is lower, can subsist on lower quality food

Chimpanzees

Diverse Diet (50% of diet is fruit, Benefit of Suspension)

Humans

Thicker Enamel (thicker than Kenyapithecus)

Adapted to eating terrestrial hard foods

Bipedalism

Why become a biped?

Cool breezes

High off the ground

Bipedalism:

Many anatomical adaptations:

Feet (non divergent toe, aligned with the rest of our toes)

Lower Limbs (valgus knee): your knee is fully extendable

Pelvis

Spine

Skull

Upper limbs

Facultative Bipedalism vs. Obligate Bipedalism

Facultative: Using Bipedalism with other types of locomotion

Obligate Bipedalism: Using Bipedalism only because it prefers it.

4-8 mya Gap

LUkeino molar (KNM-LU335)--6 mya, lower M1 or M2

Kanapoi (KNM-KP271) --Partial distal humerus

Lothagam--5.5 mya, Right portion of mandible

Tabarin (KNM-TH13150)--5 mya -Mandible (2 complete molars)

Pre-Australopiths:

MID-90’S, more fossils **MUST REMEMBER THESE**

Australopithecus ramidus → Ardipithecus ramidus

17 fossils

4.4mya

Middle Awash region in Ethiopia (East Africa)

110 Specimens: 36 individuals

Ardi:

Had thin enamel

Was a Facultative

LCA of apes and hominids?

Pre-australopith

Other Possible LCA (pre-australopiths)

Orrorin tugenensis

Discovered in 2002

6 mya

13 fossils (minimum of 5 individuals)

Postcrania looks more hominin than ape

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Discovered in 2002

6-7 mya

Djurab desert (modern day Chad)

Australopiths

Anatomically similar to modern humans, but their heads were significantly different from ours

Adult brain size was about ⅓ that of people today

Widest part of their skull was below the brain

Big teeth, thick enamel, large jaws, and powerful jaw muscles

Early hominid faces were concave or dish-shaped

6 species of Australopiths

Australopithecines are put into two groups:

1. Gracile (“slender”)

2. Robust (muscular)

Main differences are found in the dental anatomy.

Robust forms: bigger grinding teeth, more robust jaws, more bulky chewing muscles and muscle attachments.

Australopithecus anamensis (Early Gracile)

May have been the earliest australopithecine species

4.2-3.9 mya in East Africa

Due to the scarcity of fossils and because they are highly fragmentary, little is known about them

Australopithecus Afarensis: 2 major sites:

Hadar, Ethiopia

AL 288-1 (Lucy)

Discovered in 1973

3.18 mya

Laetoli, Tanzania

LH4 (single mandible; 3.4-3.76 mya)

Lucy, AL 288-1

Discovered in 1971

40% complete skeleton

3.2 million Years old

Transitional species

2 hypotheses concerning locomotion:

Obligate, Terrestrial Biped: proposed by Lovejoy and Latimer

Short Pelvis

Valgus Knee

Flare of hips (smaller outlet)

Biped, retained arboreality: proposed by Stern, Susman and Jungers

Bent-Hip, Bent-knee biped that retained significant arboreality

Who is right?

Ward (2002)

Compared humeral-femoral index to 18 pygmies and bonobos (chimp)

Humurs/femur X100

Bonobos h-f index: 97.8

Pygmies h-f index 73.7

Lucy h-f index: 85

Australopithecus afarensis (Early Gracile)

slender curved fingers (grasping)

Canine teeth were large and pointed

Small brain size (375-500 cc)

Valgus knee

Short, curved ilium

Posterior sagittal crest

Flat cranial base

Parallel tooth rows

Australopithecus africanus

3-2.5 mya

South African Australopithecine

Dates using biostratigraphy

Pig used as a marker fossil

1st Australopithecine

The Taung child

Discovered in 1924 in S. Africa

2.5 mya

Raymond Dart found it.

Raymond Dart claimed:

1925: Nature; Dart claimed fossil represented missing link between human and ape

Australopithecus africanus

Immediate criticism

Eoanthropus dawsonii (1912)--was a fraud

Australopithecus africanus had reduced proganthism

Crowding in front teeth

Reduction in canine size

Parallel teeth rows

Australopithecus aethiopicus (Robust)

The late australopithecines (robust) had larger jaws accompanied by pronounced sagittal crests

Called the black skull (KNM-WT 17000)

Discovered in 1985

2.5 mya

Only found in East AFrica

Thought to be a transitional form from one of the gracile species that came before

Primitive vs. Derived traits in Robust forms:

Large incisors (derived)

Sagittal crest (derived)

Broad face (Derived)

Prognathism (Ancestral)

Small brain (400cc) (Ancestral)

Australopithecus robustus (Robust)

Molarization of premolars = reduction in anterior teeth (this is unique to robustus)

Australopithecus boisei

Super-robust East AFrican species

2-1 mya

OH 5

Male number: KNM-ER 406

Female: KNM-ER 732 (still very small brains)

The ice age

Glaciations enveloped huge areas of europe, asia, and North America

Divided into three species

Pleistocene fossils

Middle pleistocene: H. heidelbergensis (or archaic H. Sapiens)

Late Pleistocene: H. Neanderthalensis

African H. Heidelbergensis (middle Pleistocene)

Kabwe, zambia

200 kya

Complete crania

European h. Heidelbergensis

Atapuerca 5

Spain

300 kya

1125 cc

Low, sloping forehead

Early evidence of neandertal ancestry

Big nose

Asian h. Heidelbergensis

Primitive and derived traits

The dali skull

230-180 k

China

Most complete skull of middle or late pleistocene fossils in china

1120 cc

Pronounced brow ridge is primitive

Wide nasal opening is derived

Neandertals

1st d. In 1829

“Neander” “Thal” (neander valley

Neanderthal vs. neandertal

LA Chappelle Aux Saints

D. in 1908

La Chappelle, France

Approximately 40 at age of death

1620 cc

Marcellin Boule 1st described fossil

La Ferasie

Teeth worn out, could be using teeth to crack things, use them as tools

Neandertal morphology

Average brain size = 1400 cc

Occipital bun

Pre-lambdoid flattening shoveled incisors

Low, sloping forehead

Neandertal morphology

Very robust

Thick cortical bone

Males: 5.5 feet, Females: 5 feet

Broad chested (barrel Shaped)

stocky

More area to volume=much heat loss

Less area to volume

Mousterian technology

Associated with archaic H. sapiens (H. heidelbergensis) and Neandertals

Levallois technique

Involved specially preparing a core in order to remove fakes of a predetermined size and shape

Appears first during the later archaic stages but it's the neandertals that improve the levallois technique

Subsistence

Hunting has become a critically important part of the diet

High levels of carbons and nitrogen in neandertal bone confirms that up to 85% of their diet was meat

Cooperative hunting

Origins of modern homo sapiens

2 hypotheses

Replacement hypothesis: “out of africa”. Recent speciation event constrained in time and space. No interbreeding occurred

Multiregional hypothesis: modern humans at least in part descended from their archaic regional predecessors in the OW. interbreeding occurred

Lagar velho skeleton (portugal

4 year old

Chin

No H-O foramen

thick , arctic-like bones

Problems? Only 1 skeleton

MTDNA evidence

Krings et al. (1997): 1st isolated mtDNA from neandertal

MISMATCHES=25

Krings et al. (1999)

MISMATCHES between subspecies of chimps

Green et al. (2010)

1-4% admixture in europeans and asians

Upper paleolithic revolution

Amh first emerged=100000 years ago, but no change in lifestyle for 60,000 years

Upper paleolithic revolution (40,000)

New materials (bone ivory, and antler)

Aesthetic appreciation?

Most advanced state is the magdalenian tools:

Spear throwers (atlatl)

Barbed harpoons (spears for fish)

Bow and arrow

Symbolic representations (art) become more prominent:

Cave paintings sculptures

Engravings

Venus figurines

Upper Paleolithic

No question of “purposeful” burials

AMH vs. Archaic and Neandertal skulls

Small faces with the first appearance of chins

Smaller teeth and jaws

Rounded skulls with vertical foreheads

Human variation and adaptation

Adaptation: one way that humans meet the challenges of the environment (aka natural selection)

According to environmental stresses, humans can go through physiological and growth adjustments (essentially adapting)

How do we study genes that govern adaptive traits?

Human genome: 2003

SNPs or Single nucleotide polymorphisms

Homeostasis: a condition of balance (stability); maintained by physiological mechanisms that compensate for changes

Sweating

Pigmented skin

Acclimatization: physiological responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individual's lifetime.

Short term, long term, or permanent

Example: tanning

Developmental acclimatization: irreversible physiological changes that occur during growth and development due to an environmental challenge

Historical views

First physical difference of humans to be explained was skin color

1350 b.c.: ancient egyptians classified humans according to skin color

Linnaeus’ taxonomic classification

Blumenbach’s taxonomic classification

Biological determinism: the concept that phenomena, including various aspects of behavior are governed by biological factors

Who was proposing these ideas?

Eugenics: the philosophy of “race improvement” through the forced sterilization of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others

Biological determinism and eugenics lasted until the 1930’s when darwin’s theory was combined with genetics

Anthropologists began to view human variation according to darwin’s theory of natural selection

Race: refers to geographically patterned phenotypic variation within a species

Is a race a biological (genetically based) entity?

Richard lewontin

Variation within a population

Variation between populations

“The amount of genetic variation accounted for by differences between groups is vastly exceeded by the variation that exists within groups”

Skin color

Hemoglobin

Carotene

Melanin pigment

A granular substance produced by specialized cells (melanocytes) found in the epidermis

A tan is a temporary increase in melanin production (acclimatization)

Evolution of skin color

Jablonski & Chaplin, 2000

Skin + ultraviolet light + vitamins

2 mya early members of genus homo started moving from cool forests to open plains to find food

Individuals born with less hair had a survival advantage

Moving to a sunnier environment meant great exposure to UV light

Melanin shields folate from the effects of UV light

Folate: B vitamin produced in the dermis and epidermis, can be replenished through diet: important for proper cell division, key for proper growth in utero, and during infancy. In children and adults is important to produce healthy red blood cells and to prevent anemia

Vitamin D: is made naturally in the body when UV sunlight hits the skin.

Vitamin D is key for building strong bones, for a strong immune system, for cell proliferation and for an adequate functioning of the brain, heart and pancreas

Those with less melanin could still produce vitamin D in environments with less sunlight. This is also safe in areas of high altitude because UV light is not strong enough to damage folate. problem=when they live in tropical areas with high exposure to sunlight. Skin cancer (b/c folate helps to prevent it)

Skin color is a simple adaptation to 2 conflicting selective forces:

Protection from overexposure to UV rays

Adequate UV exposure

Adaptation to altitude

Mechanisms that have evolved to maintain homeostasis evolved at lower altitudes

High altitude environment = stress on the body

Hypoxia: body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply

People of tibet

Live at 12,000 + feet

7,000-25,000 years of occupation at these altitudes

Proof that natural selection (given enough time) will increase frequency of advantageous traits

Just for comparison: knoxville (886 ft)

Antimicrobial resistance

Since the 20th century, antimicrobial products reduced the threat posed by infectious diseases

These “wonder drugs” (combined with improvements in sanitation, housing, and nutrition) has decreased deaths from diseases that were previously widespread, untreatable, and frequently fatal

Conclusions

Genetics bring about human variation: gene flow, mutation

environment /culture brings about human variation: sickle-cell anemia and antimicrobial resistance

geography/physiological stresses bring about human variation: skin pigmentation, developmental acclimitization in high altitudes

5 April 2016

The Human Life Course

Introduction

Genetics will always prevail over cultural influences

Some genetically determined things can be influenced by culture

Stature

weight

Key terms

Growth: increase in mass or number of cells

Can be a type of development

Development: differentiation of cells into types of tissues and their maturation

Examples of development

Molar development, cells formed for vision purposes, epiphyses fuse in long bones

All of these examples occur because of cell differentiation

Growth

Begins at conception and ends in early 20’s

3 crucial growth periods: 1. First 6 months in utero., 2. From birth to 4 years of age., 3. Puberty

Adolescent growth spurt

Differs between girls and boys

Growth and development

Brain development occurs in stages:

0-10 months (neurons develop)

Birth to 6 years (voluntary movement, reasoning perception, frontal lobes development)

7 to 22 years (brain at 95% full brain size, prefrontal cortex or impulses and decision making development)

Most mammalian species: at least 50% of its adult brain size prior to birth

Why? (Rosenberg and Trevathan, 2001)

Factors that influence growth and development:

Nutrition (most important)

Genetics (polygenic traits)

Hormones

Environmental factors

Nutrition

Nutrition is the most important factor in healthy growth and development

In utero nutrition (most important for 2 reasons)

Our evolutionary history contributed to our nutritional requirements

Because of culture, our evolutionary advantages are now becoming disadvantages

Our ability to store fat

Type 2 diabetes

In the past, it only occurred in older individuals living in the developed world

By 2025, predicted that 70% of cases will be in developing nations (WHO)

Also affecting the younger people

Hormones

2 important hormones for growth and development:

1). Growth hormone: promotes growth and affects all other body cells

2). Insulin: affects metabolism and glucose levels. Helps

Environment

Altitude and climate can impact growth and development

Exposure to sunlight: vitamin D is necessary for proper skeletal growth (rickets)

Infectious disease: if during childhood it can often delay growth

Feral Children

Genie: found in 1970, 13 years old, 59 pounds and 54 inches tall

Many case studies conducted on the growth and development of feral children

Pregnancy birth and infancy

Pregnancy is different according to cultural influences

Who can get pregnant, when, and with whom?

Once pregnant, what should the women eat, what should she do or not do?

Infancy is the period when nursing takes place (4 years of nursing is the norm)

What is the evolutionary advantage to breastfeeding? (protects their immune system, less likely to ovulate)

Childhood

Childhood: the time between weaning and puberty when the brain is completing its growth and the acquisition of technical and social

Page 2

¨Australopithecus Sediba

(This species predates early homo)

¨

¨Homo habilis

vs.

Homo rudolfensis

(study date ranges &

epochs)

¨Physical characteristics of:

¤Homo

habilis

¤Homo

rudolfensis

¤Homo

erectus

¨Turkana boy

¨Tool technology and cultural evidence (H.

habilis & H. erectus)

(study date ranges & epochs)

¨Homo floresiensis

¤Hypotheses

concerning its ancestors¨

Morphology of H.

heidelbergensis

&

Neandertals

¨Technology & Social organization

¨Modern human origins

¤2

hypotheses & evidence

¨Anatomically modern humans

¤Cultural

evidence

¤Morphology

¨Evolution of skin color. Watch video

again if

needed: http://www.ted.com/talks/nina_jablonski_breaks_the_illusion_of_skin_color

¨

¨Examples of acclimatization

¨How did the lab relate to our discussion

of race?

¨Courses of the human life

¨What effects growth and development?

¨Success of humans as a species

Page 3

Australopithecus Sediba

Location: South Africa (Pliocene)

When: 1.977-1.98 Mya

Skeleton resembled from early australopithecus and early hom

Upper chest, teeth, and length of arms/legs close to closest to austra

Lower chest, cranial, pelvis, facial features, premolars and molars closest to homo

Showed signs of bipedalism, began evolution of upright walking

A.S. was partially arboreal and partial bipedal

Long arms and small bodies

Difference in dentition→ change in diet

Homo Habilis

Location: Eastern and Southern Africa (Pliocene)

When: 2.4-1.4 mya

Larger cranium, smaller face, visible prognathic brow

Stronger jaw muscles could eat tougher foods

Early stone tools

Survived bc they could eat food that wasn’t in season

Homo Hab and Homo Rudolf coexisted

Homo Rudolfensis

Location: Eastern Africa (Northern Kenya/ Tanzania) (Pliocene)

When: 1.9-1.8mya

Larger braincase, longer face (Homo features) vs Larger molars and premolars (Austra features)

Powerful chewing

Homo Erectus

Location: Eastern, North, and South Africa; West, East Asia (Pleistocene)

When: 1.89-143,000 m/kya

Human like proportions- longer legs than arms compared to the torso

Capacity to walk and eventually run long distances

Expanded braincase vs face

Turkana Boy (can someone add info?)

Acheulean Technology

Tool Technology

Oldowan Stone Tool

2.6 mya

-hammer stones, stone cores, sharp stone flakes

Acheulean Stone Tools

1.76 mya

-hand axes, large cutting tools

Mousterian Technology

(H.Sapiens, H. Heidy, Nean)

Levallois Technology

-made to shape stone cores

Culture Evidence

Stone tools, hearths, social interaction, signs of eventually caring for the weak and old

Homo Floresiensis (Pleistocene)

Where: Asia

When: 100-50 kya

3’6, tiny brains, large teeth (in comparison to size), forward shrugged shoulders, no chin, forward head, large feet→ short legs

Used stone tools

Hunted, maybe used fire

Dwarfism→ pigmy elephants as prime food source

Hypothesis: may represent modern human w/ diseas or growth disorder. Scientist still trying to figure out Flor and other homo connections

Homo Heidelbergensis (Pleistocene)

Where: Europe, Asia, South and East Africa

When: 700-200 kya

Large brow ridges, large braincase, flat face, short wide bodies that conserve heat, wide nose, big naval opening

Used fireplaces as social hangouts, heat sources, sharing food, ward off predators

1st sign of natural shelters

Homo Neanderthalensis (Pleistocene)

Where: Europe, South Western to Central Asia

When: 400-40 kya

Closest extinct human relative

Large middle part of face, angled cheek, huge nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air

Short, stocky body→ helps adapt to cold environments

Improved levallois technology

Big as or bigger brain than ours

2 Hypothesis

Replacement Hypothesis: “out of Africa” recent speciation event constrained in time and space. No breeding occurred.

Multiregional hypothesis: Modern humans at least in part descended from their archaic regional predecessors in the Old World.

Anatomically Modern Humans (Pleistocene)

Where:

When: 100 kya

Small faces

Chins!!!

Smaller teeth and jaws

Round skulls w/ vertical foreheads

Cultural Evidence

Spear throwers

Barbed harpoons

Bow and arrows

Symbolic representations; i.e. cave paintings, engravings, venus figurines

Evolution of Skin Color

Approximately 2 million years ago, early genus homo began migrating to cooler and open plains to find food. If you lived in a sunnier environment, you were exposed to UV light. Your skin adapted to that light by having a darker melanin which protected your folate. When the UV light hits you, Vitamin D is naturally being made. Any melanin type can produce Vitamin D. Those who did not live in an environment closest to the sun’s rays had less melanin bc their skin didn’t have to adapt to protect themselves. They also should stay around less sunlight/UV rays so that folate can prevent skin cancer.

Extra info

- those born with less hair had a survival advantage

- folate is Vitamin B in the dermis and epidermis and is important for cell division, cell division, growth in utero, and during infancy

-Vitamin D is good for strong bones, immune systems, cell proliferation, adequate functions of brain, heart, and pancreas

Simple adaptations to 2 conflict selective forces

Protection from overexposure to UV rays

Adequate UV exposure

Example of Acclimatization

Tanning- short, long, or permanent

(definition: physiological responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individual's lifetime)

How did our Lab relate to our discussion about race?

Idk if I can answer this effectively

Courses of the Human Life (Holocene)

Key terms

Growth: increase in mass or number of cells

Can be a type of development

Development: differentiation of cells into types of tissues and their maturation

Examples of development

Molar development, cells formed for vision purposes, epiphyses fuse in long bones

All of these examples occur because of cell differentiation

Growth

Begins at conception and ends in early 20’s

3 crucial growth periods: 1. First 6 months in utero., 2. From birth to 4 years of age., 3. Puberty

Adolescent growth spurt

Differs between girls and boys

Growth and development

Brain development occurs in stages:

0-10 months (neurons develop)

Birth to 6 years (voluntary movement, reasoning perception, frontal lobes development)

7 to 22 years (brain at 95% full brain size, prefrontal cortex or impulses and decision making development)

Most mammalian species: at least 50% of its adult brain size prior to birth

Why? (Rosenberg and Trevathan, 2001)

Factors that influence growth and development:

Nutrition (most important)

Genetics (polygenic traits)

Hormones

Environmental factors

Nutrition

Nutrition is the most important factor in healthy growth and development

In utero nutrition (most important for 2 reasons)

Our evolutionary history contributed to our nutritional requirements

Because of culture, our evolutionary advantages are now becoming disadvantages

Our ability to store fat

Type 2 diabetes

In the past, it only occurred in older individuals living in the developed world

By 2025, predicted that 70% of cases will be in developing nations (WHO)

Also affecting the younger people

Hormones

2 important hormones for growth and development:

1). Growth hormone: promotes growth and affects all other body cells

2). Insulin: affects metabolism and glucose levels. Helps

Environment

Altitude and climate can impact growth and development

Exposure to sunlight: vitamin D is necessary for proper skeletal growth (rickets)

Infectious disease: if during childhood it can often delay growth

Feral Children

Genie: found in 1970, 13 years old, 59 pounds and 54 inches tall

Many case studies conducted on the growth and development of feral children

Pregnancy birth and infancy

Pregnancy is different according to cultural influences

Who can get pregnant, when, and with whom?

Once pregnant, what should the women eat, what should she do or not do?

Infancy is the period when nursing takes place (4 years of nursing is the norm)

What is the evolutionary advantage to breastfeeding? (protects their immune system, less likely to ovulate)

Childhood

Childhood: the time between weaning and puberty when the brain is completing its growth and the acquisition of technical and social

Success of Humans as a Species

- speech

- advanced technology

(please add more)