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Descrição
FlashCards por Em Maskrey, atualizado more than 1 year ago
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Criado por Em Maskrey
quase 7 anos atrás
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| Questão | Responda |
| Media representations of femininity can be broken into two categories. What are they? | 1. Symbolic annihilation. 2. Limited roles. |
| Which sociologist uses the phrase 'symbolic annihilation' to describe the way in which women are represented by the media? | Gaye Tuchman. |
| A good example of the symbolic annihilation of women's activities is the media's coverage of women's sports. According to Claire Packet et al, during the 2012 Olympics, what percentage of articles in national newspapers were related to women's sports? | 4.5%. |
| In addition, the little coverage that did exist tended to sexualise, trivialise and devalue female sporting accomplishments. What do Margaret Duncan and Michael Messner observe about commentators? | Commentators, 97% of whom are men, use different language when talking about female athletes. For example, women in sport are often referred to as 'girls', whereas men are rarely called 'boys'. |
| Tuchman also commented on the limited amount of roles available to women. This comment was later echoed by which sociologist? | Jeremy Tunstall. |
| How does Jeremy Tunstall describe the presentation of women in the media? | As biased - women are typically presented as busy housewives, contented mothers, eager consumers and sex objects in various stages of undress. |
| In contrast, Tunstall notes that men are often portrayed in what way? | Their bodies are rarely sexually objectified in the mainstream media and little reference is made to their marital and domestic status. |
| Which report examined 11 national newspapers over a fortnight in September of 2012, finding that the tabloid press in particular often focus on women's appearance? | The 'Just the Women' report. |
| The report found that women are often reduced to sexual commodities to be consumed by the 'male gaze'. What is meant by this? | The term refers to the way that men look at women, reducing them to decorative and sexual beings. |
| In keeping with the male gaze, which feminist argues that the foremost media message directed at women is that their bodies are a project in need of constant improvement? | Naomi Wolf. |
| Which sociologist argues that the media encourage the belief that slimness equates to success, health, happiness and popularity? | Susie Orbach. |
| Orbach accuses the media, particularly women's magazines, of encouraging young girls and women to be dissatisfied and unhappy with their bodies. What does this create? | The potential for eating disorders, as females are constantly pressured to be concerned about their weight, shape, size and looks. |
| In her research, Kat Banyard found evidence indicating what? | Just five minutes of exposure to thin and beautiful images of women result in female viewers feeling low self-esteem about their own bodies in comparison to viewing neutral objects. |
| What does David Gauntlett note about 21st century media aimed at young women? | It differs in character from the media of 20 years ago. |
| How is today's media aimed at young women different to media aimed at young women from 20 years ago? | Today's magazines for young women emphasise women's independence and the need to 'be themselves'. Such representations imply that women can be tough and independent while "maintaining perfect make-up and wearing impossible shoes". |
| Surveys of young women indicate these messages are having what impact? | A positive and significant impact on the way young women construct their identities today. |
| Which two sociologists argue that new media is empowering young women? | Eileen Green and Carrie Singleton. |
| How does Sadie Plant describe the internet? | As a 'feminine technology' that has the potential to undermine patriarchy because its use allows women to explore, subvert and create new identities. |
| There is some evidence that the internet has been a very useful tool for challenging negative media representations of women. However, what does other research indicate in contrast to this? | Women who use new media such as the internet may experience the sort of everyday sexist representations encountered in older forms of media. |
| What do Green and Singleton note about women's participation in internet online communities such as Mumsnet? | It may merely reinforce the notion that women should perform the 'emotional work' for the family. |
| There have been dozens of studies on how the media represents women and femininity. Can the same be said for men and masculinity? | No. There has been little analysis of how the media constructs, informs and reinforces cultural expectations of men and masculinity. |
| In 1999, the research group Children Now asked boys between the ages of 10 and 17 about their perceptions of the male characters they saw on TV, in movies and music videos. How many of the boys surveyed had never seen a man doing domestic chores on television? | A third. |
| In his analysis of a wide variety of media, which sociologist claimed that media representations of boys and men typically failed to portray the reality of masculine life? | Jim R. McNamara. |
| According to McNamara, what percentage of media representations of males were negative? | 80% - they were routinely shown as "violent and aggressive thieves, thugs, murderers, wife and girlfriend bashers, sexual abusers, molesters, perverts, irresponsible deadbeat dads and philanderers, even though, in reality, only a small proportion of men act out these roles and behaviours". |
| McNamara did find that 20% of media representations of masculinity focused on males who behaved in a more 'feminine' way. Which term is applied to men who behave in such a way? | "Meterosexual". |
| Gauntlett argues that men's media increasingly encourage meterosexual values by portraying men as caring, generous and good-humoured. However, what does he also acknowledge? | Images of the conventionally rugged, independent macho man still circulate in popular culture. This arguably counters the progress men's media is making. |
| Which three perspectives of media representations are explored in this chapter? | 1. Feminism. 2. Postmodernism. 3. Pluralism. |
| Sociologists working in the field of media representations predominantly belong to which perspective? | Feminism. |
| Feminists have been very critical of the representations of both men and women in the media, believing that the mass media plays a major role in what? | The social construction of gender roles. |
| Liberal feminists note that while women's achievements have increased, the media is not reflecting this. Why does this 'cultural lag' exist? | Because women rarely achieve high positions in media organisations. |
| Which sociologist notes that the newsroom is an extremely male culture, which can be off-putting for women? | Eleanor Mills. |
| In 2014 and 2015, how many creators, directors, writers, producers, executive producers, editors and directors of photography working in prime time TV were female? | 29%. |
| In addition, in 2014, how many protagonists, major characters and speaking characters in the top 100 grossing films were female? | 12% of protagonists, 29% of major characters and 30% of all speaking characters. |
| Women continue to be found in which areas of the film industry? | Hair, make-up and costume design. |
| Marxist feminists believe that the roots of the stereotypical images of men and women are economic. What do they argue? | Media professionals, who are typically male, aim to attract the largest audience possible in order to entice advertising revenue. As a result, TV sitcoms, gameshows and soap operas often reflects the social consensus that men and women should occupy traditional domestic roles. |
| Marxist femininsts have also focused on the content of women's magazins. Such magazines make profits from advertising, rather than sales. What impact does this have? | Magazines need to promote 'false needs' regarding beauty, size, etc., in order to attract advertising revenue from the cosmetics, diet, exercise and fashion industries. |
| By presneting an ideal that is extremely difficult to achieve and maintain, what are capitalist groups guaranteed? | Growth and profits. This is linked to the concept of flexible accumulation. |
| According to radical feminist Naomi Wolf, the media intentionally fools women into believing in what? | The 'beauty myth' that women should adhere to a particular ideal in terms of looks, size, shape, weight and sex appeal. |
| Women are heavily encouraged by the media to see these goals as central to their personal happiness, rather than career-orientated goals that would result in them competing with men for positions of power. What do women therefore experience? | A form of false consciousness. Women are deterred from making the most of the opportunities available to them. |
| However, Angela McRobbie recognises there has been a slight shift in media representations of women in recent years. Much of the media aimed towards young women today embodies what? | A form of 'popular feminism' that expresses the concept of girl power. |
| Popular feminists have developed their own language to distinguish themselves as 'modern' feminists. What is the main difference between their language and the language used by 'traditional' feminists? | The traditional language was marginalised and regularly ignored by the mainstream media, whereas modern language is now in the mainstream of commercial culture. |
| The second perspective considered in this chapter is postmodernism. Postmodernists are positive about media representations of gender. How does David Gauntlett describe the relationship between the media and gender identity? | As no longer singular and straightforward - media messages no longer suggest there is only one ideal type of masculinity and femininity. |
| In fact, what does Gauntlett claim today's mass media does to traditional definitions of gender? | It dismantles them by encouraging a diversity of masculine and feminine identities. |
| The third perspective examined in this chapter is pluralism. Pluralists claim that the concept of symbolic annihilation underestimates women's ability to do what? | See through gender stereotyping and manipulation. |
| What do pluralists believe the media is reflecting? | Social attitudes and tastes. They argue that the media meets both men's and women's needs and state that if women were really unhappy in the way they are being represented, they would not buy the offending media products. |
| However, what do pluralists fail to consider? | The possibility that the media may be responsible for creating those needs in the first place. |
| Which sociologist conducted a content analysis of magazines and TV programmes consumed by young people in order to examine how sexuality is represented? | Susan Batchelor. |
| Batchelor found that some aspects of sexuality were represented very positively. How? | They publicised sexual health information and explored issues such as consent and whether couples were 'ready' to have sex. |
| However, Batchelor's findings also indicate three important limitations in media coverage of youth sexuality. What are they? | 1. Contraception was clearly shown as a female responsibility. 2. There were clear differences in the way young men and women talked and felt about sex. 3. There was a lack of positive images of homosexaul teenagers, and a failure to represent diversity. |
| Batchelor found that media representations of sexuality in the UK are overwhelmingly heterosexual. When homosexuality does appear, how is it usually represented? | As being a source of anxiety and embarrassment, or the cause of bullying. She also found that lesbianism was completely invisible. |
| Steve Craig identified three media signifiers of gayness that are common in representations of homosexuality. What are they? | 1. Camp. 2. Macho. 3. Deviant. |
| What does Craig mean by 'camp'? | This is one of the most common representations of homosexuality. It includes the use of irony and exaggeration by characters that are typically seen as flamboyant. While this representation is not threatening, it does reinforce negative views of gay sexuality as being somewhat feminine. |
| What does Craig mean by 'macho'? | This stereotype relies on exaggerating masculinity, as well as being openly sexual. This representation is regarded as threatening as it destabilises traditional ideas of masculinity. |
| What does Craig mean by 'deviant'? | Gays are often seen as deviant. They may be devious or evil, presented as sexual predators or as people who feel extreme guilt about their sexuality. Dyer argues that they are rarely presented in a sympathetic manner, and gay characters are defined entirely by their 'problem'. |
| Research by LGBT.co.uk led them to claim that the LGBT community is undergoing symbolic annihilation. They argue that LGBT characters are often allocated the status of what? | Comedic relief- something to mock or laugh at - or, in the case of lesbianism, presented as oversexualised and erotic decoration to titillate male viewers. |
| LGBT.co.uk conclude that the UK mass media is demonstrating what sort of bias? | An institutional anti-LGBT bias. |
| Stonewall attempted to quantify this institutional bias by examining television programmes specifically aimed at youths. Out of a total of 126 hours of such programming, how long was spent on LGBT-related characters and issues, and how much of this time portrayed them realistically and positively? | Less than 6 hours were spent on LGBT-related characters and issues, and less than an hour of this coverage was realistic and positive. |
| The majority of the LGBT coverage focuses on gay men, rather than lesbians. What are the two types of lesbian, according to television representation? | Lesbians are either butch or lipstick lesbians - that is, either overtly masculine or overtly feminine in their behaviour. |
| However, the power of the 'pink economy' is now being recognised by advertisers, which is leading to more positive representation. What does this term refer to? | Many gay men and women are professional people with no dependents and large disposable incomes - the so-called 'pink pound' - to spend on consumer goods. Companies have actively courted homosexual consumers through gay-positive advertising and marketing campaigns, thus increasing profit. |
| What is also encouraging more positive representations of homosexuality? | The development of new media, because much of the content on the internet is user-generated. |
| In addition, social media has been used to generate support for same-sex marriage in both the USA and Northern Ireland. In 2015, how many tweets used the #lovewins hashtag to support same-sex marriage in America? | 3.6 million. |
| However, research by the University of Alberta shows the negative aspects of user-generated social media. They tracked all public tweets between 2012 and 2015 that used four particularly negative terms about the LGBT. How many homophobic comments did they record? | 56.5 million. |
| There are two wide sociological views of disability. What is the first, and what does it claim? | The biomedical model - this claims that people with disabilities are disabled by their physical and/or mental impairments and are dependent upon the able-bodied. |
| What is the second, and what does it claim? | The social constructionist theory - this argues that the disabled are actually disabled by society and prejudicial stereotypes and attitudes, which result in discriminatory practices, known collectively as 'disablism'. |
| Name two sociologists with firsthand experience of disability: | Colin Barnes and Tom Shakespeare. |
| Barnes identifies six reoccurring stereotypes of disabled people which regularly appear in media representations of the disabled. Give examples: | 1. Pitiable and pathetic. 2. Sinister and evil. 3. Atmospheric or curio. 4. Super-cripples. 5. Sexually abnormal. 6. Incapable of participating in community life fully. |
| What is meant by 'pitiable and pathetic'? | Barnes claims that this stereotype is a staple of television documentaries, which often focus heavily on disabled children and the possibilities of 'miracle' cures. |
| What is meant by 'sinister and evil'? | Disabled people are often shown as criminals or monsters. In the James Bond movies, for example, the villains often have some form of disfigurement. |
| What is meant by 'atmospheric or curio'? | Disabled people may be included to enhance the atmosphere of menace, unease, mystery or deprivation, thus adding visual impact to production. TV documentaries often regard the disabled as curios to be observed in fascination by able-bodied audiences. |
| What is meant by 'super-cripples'? | Barnes notes that the disabled are often shown as having special powers. He states that the existence of 'super-cripple film' often shown disabled people, who are typically played by able-bodied actors, overcoming their disability. |
| What is meant by 'sexually abnormal'? | Many media representations assume that the disabled do not have sexual feelings, or show them as sexually degenerate. |
| What is meant by 'incapable of participating in community life fully'? | Barnes deems this the 'stereotype of omission', noting that disabled people are rarely shown as integral and productive members of the community. |
| Lynne Roper is critical of telethons such as Children In Need, which aim to raise money for the disabled. What does she argue? | Such telethons rely too heavily on 'cute' children who do not represent the range of disability accurately. These programmes also cast the able-bodied audience as givers, reinforcing the notion that the disabled and dependent. In addition, the programmes are more about entertainment than raising awareness. |
| How does Tom Shakespeare describe media stereotypes of the disabled? | "Crude, one-dimensional and simplistic". |
| Why are media representations crude and one-dimensional? | Because disabled people and their organisations are rarely used as sources and thus have little control over the language used to describe them and the way they are presented. |
| However, according to pluralists, what do media representations of the disabled reflect? | The dominant medical view that disability is dysfunctional for not only the individual, but for society as a whole. Pluralists argue that media representations realistically mirror social anxieties about impairment. |
| Sociologists who are themselves disabled disagree with this pluralist claim. Which sociologist argues that it is important to understand that social reactions to impairments result in the social condition and experience of disability? | Michael Oliver. |
| The social constructionist theory argues that impaired individuals are disabled by society and that mass media plays a key role in this process. They state that there are three main reasons why mass media representations of disability take the form they do. What are they? | 1. Medical professionals set the agenda for media portrayal of disability. 2. Media representations reflect the fears and prejudices of the able-bodied. 3. The disabled are rarely consulted for insight into their everyday life. |
| Postmodernists argue that the dominant medical discourse, which has shaped the societal and medical treatment of the disabled, is changing in what way? | It is being eroded - the disabled now politically organise themselves and independently construct their own identities. |
| Importantly, what should all sociological theories of media representations be cautious about, according to Gauntlett? | It is difficult, if not impossible, to generalise these critiques to all types of media, and sociological theories need to understand this. |
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