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FlashCards por Em Maskrey, atualizado more than 1 year ago
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Criado por Em Maskrey
mais de 6 anos atrás
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| Questão | Responda |
| Karl Marx wrote very little about crime. Which sociologist developed the first marxist theory of crime? | Willem Bonger. |
| What is the starting point for the marxist analysis of criminal law and law enforcement? | All laws are essentially for the benefit of the ruling class and criminal law reflects their interests. |
| Give an example of a law that largely benefits those with money: | Property law. |
| It is generally agreed that violent crime is dangerous and needs to be socially controlled. However, what do marxists argue? | That the ruling class monopolise the right to use violence through state apparatuses such as the law, the police and the army. |
| In his book, what does Jeffery Reiman argue about the law of theft? | It appears to be neutral and to protect everyone regardless of their class background but it actually prevents the redistribution of wealth, which is currently distributed unfairly. |
| Laureen Snider claims that in capitalist societies, laws that threaten the interests of large corporations by undermining their profits are rarely passed. Why? | The state spends millions on trying to attract inward investment from corporations and therefore don't want to enforce laws that might anger said corporations. |
| Andrew Sayer believes that the rich largely shape the law so that they are unlikely to be imprisoned. How do they do so? | They make sure that governments don't close loopholes that allow the rich to avoid tax. |
| According to the Tax Justice Network, how much does the government lose each year due to the existence of tax havens? | $250 billion. |
| In contrast to tax laws, laws against benefit scroungers are strict and punitive. However, which sociologist argues that tax avoidance may cost the government more than 20 times as much as benefit fraud? | Owen Jones. |
| Marxists argue that the ruling class impose their values upon the mass of the population. What does this produce? | A ruling class ideology. |
| The criminal justice system is one agency used to disseminate ideology. For example, how does the constant emphasis on so-called benefit scroungers help the ruling class? | It distracts attention away from law-breaking by the rich and powerful and produces a distorted view of social reality. |
| In 2013, a survey by YouGov revealed that respondents believed 27% of social security was fraudulently claimed. What is the real figure of false claims? | 0.7%. |
| Despite believing that the law-making process reflects ruling-class interests, marxists do believe the law has the potential to do what? | To benefit the majority of the population when applied fairly. |
| However, despite this potential, marxists note that the interpretation and enforcement of the law is biased in favour of the ruling class, meaning what? | The police and justice system will arrest and punish the working class at ease but will be hesitant to punish the ruling class. |
| What punishment is given to tax evaders? How does this compare to the punishment given to those who commit benefit fraud? | Tax evaders are often simply given a warning and asked to repay the tax, whereas those who commit benefit fraud are more likely to be prosecuted and sometimes even imprisoned. |
| What does the term 'corporate crime' refer to? | Crimes committed by large companies. |
| What crimes are included under the term 'street crime'? | Theft, robbery, assault and murder. |
| Which sociologist argued that corporate crime does far more harm, both economically and physically, than street crimes? | Laureen Snider. |
| Between 1890 and 1969, how many corporate offenders were given a prison sentence? | Less than 5%. |
| Of those 5% who were given prison sentences, how many were business leaders? | None. |
| Why do very few corporate crimes result in prosecution? | Because it is very difficult to prosecute corporations rather than individuals. |
| Class bias in law enforcement is also evident in the seemingly lenient treatment of what type of crime? | White-collar crime. |
| Why are white-collar crimes often not prosecuted? | - They're harder to detect due to the complexity of the cases. - There is often a win-win situation for those involved. - The public are often completely unaware of the corruption. |
| What was a widely publicised example of white-collar crime? | The MPs' expenses scandal of 2009. Most were simply required to repay some money and only 4 MPs went to prison. |
| Many white-collar offenders aren't actually members of the ruling class. Why do they still rarely face prosecution? | Because the offenders often work for and/or carry out functions that benefit the ruling class, either directly or indirectly. |
| What is another type of crime that interests marxists because it largely benefits the ruling class? | State crime (crime committed by governments and agencies working on their behalf). |
| Marxist theory also provides an explanation for actual offending. Which sociologist argued that capitalism is based upon competition, selfishness and greed, and that this forms people's attitudes to life? | William Chambliss. |
| Why do marxists argue that the values of capitalism explain the reasoning behind crime? | Because the values emphasise prioritising oneself above others. |
| What two terms did David Gordon used to describe capitalism? | 1. 'Criminogenic'. 2. 'Dog-eat-dog'. |
| The criminogenic explanation accounts for material crime. However, what does it fail to explain? | It doesn't explain why people commit non-material crimes. |
| Which sociologist argued that all crime should be explained in terms of social conditions rather than individual motivation? | Jeffery Reiman. |
| It has been argued that lack of opportunity is the result of dysfunction within industrial societies. However, Reiman argues that lack of opportunity is actually what? | A structural feature of capitalism itself, which is organised to keep the rich rich and the poor poor. |
| Reiman states that in a culture dominated by capitalist ideology, social injustice leads to lack of opportunity. In turn, what does lack of opportunity lead to? | Crime. |
| Marxists argue that crime plays a significant part in supporting the ideology of capitalism. Why? | Because it diverts attention away from the exploitative nature of capitalism and focuses it instead on the 'evil' nature of certain criminal groups. These groups are typically working class. |
| Reiman argues that crime is routinely portrayed as the result of what? | 'Individual moral failing' rather than the result of social injustice. |
| Crime is often portrayed as being carried out largely by the poor and poverty itself is usually seen as the result of moral imperfections (e.g. laziness). What does this suggest? | That the poor are poor because they deserve to be, or at least because they lack the strength to overcome their poverty. |
| This representation of crime leads to the public encouraging what? | Tougher treatment of the poor and of criminals, rather than changes to the current (unjust) system. |
| The marxist approach to crime has a number of strengths. Firstly, unlike functionalists, it doesn't assume that all laws benefit all members of society or reflect a value consensus. Why? | Because they believe that different classes can have different interests and values and these interests and values can be conflicting. They counter that laws benefit the ruling class alone. |
| While functionalists accepts that there can be functional rebels anticipating a better society in the future, they aren't clear on what a better society might look like. How does this differ from the marxist approach? | Marxists have a clear idea of a more equal, communist society which they would like to see established. |
| Functionalists believe that something needs to go wrong in order for crime to occur. What do marxists argue? | That crime is endemic to capitalism. |
| Marxism builds upon the work of labelling theorists. What argument put forward by labelling theorists does it take account of? | The belief that both laws and law enforcement are social constructs. |
| However, marxism extends beyond labelling theory in developing a theory of power. What does this theory explain? | Where power comes from and how it is distributed. |
| What are the three aspects of criminality marxism addresses? | 1. The causes of crime. 2. The process of criminalisation. 3. The application of the law. |
| Despite its strengths, the marxist approach also has a handful of weaknesses. The traditional marxist explanation for law creation and enforcement can be described as one-dimensional. Why? | Because it sees all laws as the outcome of the interests of the ruling class. No allowance is made for the complexity of law-making, such as the activities of pressure groups or the opinions expressed by the public. |
| The explanation for crime is also one-dimensional. By implying that the law will always be biased and all groups could become criminal in capitalist society, what does marxism fail to explain? | Why criminality can change over time, and why crime rates can change between different social groups and different countries. |
| Marxism associates high crime rates with capitalism. However, which sociologist points out that some capitalist countries (e.g. Sweden, Japan) actually have very low crime rates? | Stephen Jones. |
| Marxists also struggle to explain the relationship between crime and what other factors? | Different ethnic groups and different genders. |
| The distribution of power may also be more complex than marxists assume. Why? | They assume that power is distributed solely based on a person's class, but there may be other factors involved (e.g. gender, as argued by feminists). |
| Marxist research places emphasis on social structure rather than social action. However, what does this result in? | They say very little about the actual processes of labelling and the interaction between law enforcers and the so-called offenders. |
| What weakness can be identified in not only the marxist explanation, but many of the sociological explanations of crime? | Little to nothing is said about the victims of crime. |
| Despite its weaknesses, what can marxism be credited with? | Influencing a range of neo-marxist and critical criminologies, which have built upon the original ideas while bearing in mind the identified weaknesses. |
| Traditional marxism is sometimes seen as somewhat crude. Neo-marxism attempts to rectify this. What is an extremely well-known branch of neo-marxism that attempts to explain crime and deviance? | The neo-marxist subcultural theory. |
| The neo-marxist subcultural theory provides a specific explanation for the existence of what? | Subcultures among the working class. |
| The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies argues that capitalism maintains control over the majority of the population in which two ways? | 1. Ideological dominance through the media. 2. Economic pressure. |
| Which groups are not 'locked in' by ideology and finance, and are thus able to resist capitalism? | Groups on the margins of society (e.g. the working class). |
| Which sociologist argues that the resistance to capitalism is expressed through working-class youth subcultures? | Michael Brake. |
| In what ways do working-class youth subcultures resist capitalism? | In the way they dress, the language they use and their awareness of their position within society. |
| How does Brake describe this resistance? | As a 'magical illusion'. |
| Brake argues that each generation of working-class youth face the same problems but in different circumstances. What does he mean by this? | Society changes constantly so that every generation experiences a very different world with the one constant being that the majority will be exploited by the ruling class. |
| Stanley Cohen criticised neo-marxist subcultural theorists for being biased. Why? | He argued that they wanted to prove that working-class youth cultures were an attack on capitalism, so they ensured that the evidence supported this. |
| Subcultural theorists have also been criticised for using 'semiology'. What is this? | It is a 'science of signs'. |
| Why is using semiology problematic? | It is entirely subjective. |
| Shane Blackman notes that the emphasis on the working-class basis of subcultural resistance ignores what? | The fact that some subcultures are formed as a response to characteristics other than class (e.g. age, sexuality, intelligence). |
| Which sociologist argues that the supposed social-class basis to youth subcultures is merely a media creation? | Sarah Thornton. |
| Another neo-marxist theory of crime was created by Ian Taylor et al. What is it called? | The New Criminology. |
| How does the New Criminology differ from subcultural theory? | It is more concerned with theory than particular types of crime and deviance. |
| Why did Taylor et al develop the New Criminology? | The theory was developed partly as a result of the criticisms of traditional marxism and partly as an attempt to provide a 'fully social theory of deviance'. |
| Taylor et al argued that in order to understand why a particular crime occurred, it is not enough to simply examine the individual's motivation and obvious influences (as traditional marxists do). Instead, what must also be examined? | The wider capitalist society that is helping to generate the circumstances of crime and the police response to it. |
| Another aspect of the new criminology is that, apart from the actual analysis that is suggested, it also argued that any sociology of crime and deviance must be critical of the established capitalist order. What does this mean? | It means that instead of accepting the capitalist definition of crime and seeking to explain it, the new criminology ought to uncover and explain the crimes of the rich. |
| What was the implication of the new criminology? | That revolutionary change was required. |
| Ian Taylor et al were particularly in support of what? | The decriminalisation of many offences. |
| Which sociologist's study demonstrates a successful application of the new criminology? | Stuart Hall. He studied mugging in London, finding that the focus on the crime was an ideological attempt to distract the public's attention away from the failings and injustice of capitalism. |
| Which sociologist criticises the new criminology for taking 'too romantic a view' of criminals by portraying them as fighting against political injustice? | Paul Rock. |
| Which feminist sociologist argued that the new criminology did not provide any discussion on the power of patriarchy in the analysis, which simply continued the omission of women from criminological discussion? | Pat Carlen. |
| Although Stuart Hall did manage to apply the new criminology to his work, what other criticism can be made about the theory? | Methodologically, it is extremely difficult to apply, due to its complex nature. |
| Traditional marxism and the new criminology paved the way for a wider approach. What is this wider approach known as? | Critical criminology. |
| The new criminology played an important role in inspiring critical criminology. Why? | Because it did not place such exclusive emphasis on class (as traditional marxism did), instead recognising how other characteristics (e.g. race) can play a part in inequality. |
| Despite its diversity, critical criminology has two common unifying features. What are they? | 1. It sees societies and criminal justice systems as unfair and in need of change. 2. It doesn't accept existing laws as fair and objective. |
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