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| Questão | Responda |
| Prosencephalon | the forebrain front: telencephalon back: diencephalon |
| Diencephalon | (TOP --> BOTTOM) epithalamus --> pineal gland thalamus --> pair of structures (left & right) in forebrain hypothalamus |
| Thalamus | Sensory information --> thalamus --> cerebral cortex Cerebral cortex --> thalamus --> magnifies/prolongs certain kinds of input over others |
| How do we know the thalamus and cerebral cortex are connected? | Cut off axons connected to cerebral cortex --> neurons in the thalamus eventually degenerate |
| Specific thalamic nuclei | Relationship between specific region of cerebral cortex & thalamus Piece of thalamus sends info to certain part of cerebral cortex |
| Lateral geniculate nucleus | Involved in vision Vision --> specific sensory nucleus (lateral geniculate nucleus) --> primary visual cortex |
| Nonspecific thalamic nuclei | Not affected by taking out cerebellum Affect the tone of the cortex (turn up/turn down) --> regulate state of alertness Very diffuse |
| Association nuclei | Type of nonspecific thalamic nuclei Interconnect information from one area and relate it to another |
| Hypothalamus | Ventral (bottom/below) to thalamus Geographically the center of your head Over 40 different nuclei Contains the pituitary gland Damage leads to abnormalities in motivated behavior (e.g. feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, etc.) |
| Pituitary gland | Endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to base of hypothalamus Responds to hypothalamus; releases hormones |
| Telencephalon | Composed mainly of the cerebral cortex |
| Olfactory system | Has its own cortex (olfactory bulb) |
| Hippocampus | Between thalamus & cerebral cortex Involved in learning and memory; helps maintain a map of the world Damage = trouble storing new memories |
| Basal ganglia | Lateral to the thalamus - caudate - putamen - globus pallidus Connections abundant with frontal areas of the cortex (responsible for planning sequences of behavior/memories & emotional expression) Helps you program motor movement |
| Nucleus basalis | Ventral surface of forebrain (bottom) Receives input from hypothalamus and basal ganglia --> sends axons that release acetylcholine to widespread areas in cerebral cortex Involved in arousal, wakefulness, attention |
| Ventricles | Four fluid-filled cavities in the brain |
| Location of ventricles | |
| choroid plexus | cells inside the four ventricles that produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow through ventricles --> space between meninges |
| meninges | membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord |
| hydrocephalus | when CSF accumulates in the subarachnoid space |
| Hindbrain | cerebellum, medulla, and pons |
| Midbrain | substantia nigra, superior and inferior colliculi, tectum, and tegmentum |
| Forebrain | basal ganglia, hippocampus, hypothalamus, pituitary, and thalamus |
| Organization of the cerebral cortex | Six distinct laminae (layers of cell bodies parallel to the surface of the cortex & separated from each other by layers of fibers) cells are organized into columns (perpendicular to laminae) --> similar properties to each other |
| Brodmann | performed a Nissl stain and looked at the cortex; saw that the cerebral cortex has 6 layers |
| Lamina V | sends long axons to spinal cord; thickest in the motor cortex |
| Occipital lobe | located at the posterior (caudal) end of the cortex main target for visual information posterior pole: primary visual cortex (striate cortex) damage to posterior --> cortical blindness (no pattern perception or visual imagery) right hemisphere --> blindness in left visual field |
| Lamina IV | receives axons from various sensory nuclei in the thalamus prominent in all sensory cortex (visual, auditory, somatosensory) but absent from motor |
| Parietal lobe | lies between occipital lobe & central sulcus contains the postcentral gyrus monitors all info about eye, head, and body position; important for spatial and numerical informatioon |
| Postcentral gyrus | primary somatosensory cortex main target for touch sensations and information from muscle-stretch receptors & joint receptors four bands of cells parallel to the central sulcus - light touch (2) - deep pressure (1) - combination of both (1) |
| Temporal lobe | lateral portion of each hemisphere primary cortical target for auditory information --> contributes to facial perception and movement hallucinations --> extensive activity in the temporal lobes Klüver-Bucy syndrome: previously aggressive monkeys fail to display normal fears & anxieties |
| Structure of the cerebral cortex | |
| Function of areas of the cerebral cortex | |
| Functional cortex + Lobes | Temporal lobe - primary auditory cortex Parietal lobe - primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus) Occipital lobe - primary visual cortex Frontal lobe - primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus) |
| Frontal lobe | contains primary motor cortex & prefrontal cortex precentral gyrus (specialized for control of fine movements) prefrontal cortex (bigger cerebral cortex --> more dedicated to prefrontal cortex) --> integrates a huge amount of information (has up to 16 times as many dendritic spines) |
| Proliferation | creating neurons (from mitotic cells found on the inside of the neural tube) |
| Germinal zones | areas in the nervous system that produce all the neurons |
| Migration | neurons move out to where they need to be; aided by glia (radial glia or glia that creates processing) O O O O O O O O (newer cells) O O O O O O O O (older cells/first cells) ----------------------- neural tube ----------------------- |
| Iterated processing unit | one of the reasons why cerebral cortex is so bumpy (not thicker, more folds --> more units) amount of surface area is important |
| immunoglobins & chemokines | guide chemical migration; deficit = decreased brain size, decreased axon growth, mental retardation excesses of immunoglobins = linked to schizophrenia |
| Differentiation | 1) send out axon --> end of axon has a growth cone developing axons use cues to know where to go |
| Sperry | retinotectal map If we rotated the eye, would the axons go to the same place as before or follow how the eye was rotated? Even if the retina was rotated, the axons still go to the same place as before |
| neural darwinism | begin with overproliferating neurons however, only so many muscle fibers, so many synapses produce fittest circuits |
| Neurotrophin | a chemical that promotes the survival and activity of neurons can be received from target cell and incoming axons |
| nerve growth factor (NGF) | promotes survival & growth of the axon if axon receives NGF, axon will not die |
| Fetal alcohol syndrome | alcohol suppresses release of glutamate (excitatory neurotransmitter)/enhances GABA activity neurons receive less excitation & neurotrophins than normal --> undergo apoptosis |
| Ferret experiment | |
| Ferret experiment procedure | Optic nerve --> attached to auditory area of the thalamus auditory thalamus & cortex reorganized --> took on characteristic appearance of the visual cortex |
| Enriched vs impoverished environments | small neurons vs large neurons (thicker, more dendrites, synapses, etc.) |
| What is true of the number of synapses? | The number of synapses is never constant. The brain is plastic and malleable. |
| Brain adaptations in people blind since infancy | occipital cortex of blind people --> serves verbal functions as well as touch EVIDENCE OF TOUCH INFORMATION IN OCCIPITAL CORTEX: 1) brain scans indicate increased activity in the occipital cortex while blind people perform tasks such as feeling two objects and saying whether they are the same or different. 2) temporary inactivation of the occipital cortex blocks blind people’s ability to perform that task, without affecting the ability of sighted people. |
| focal hand dystonia | when reorganization of the sensory thalamus and cortex causes overlap between representations of fingers characterized by clumsy, easily fatigued fingers and involuntary movements |
| Steps in neural development | 1) proliferation 2) migration 3) differentiation a) axogenesis b) dendrogenesis c) synapsogenesis 4) cell death |
| closed head injury | a sharp blow to the head resulting from an accident, assault, or other sudden trauma that does not actually puncture the brain |
| stroke (cerebrovascular incident) | temporary loss of blood flow to a brain area ischemia: result of a blood clot or other obstruction in the artery hemorrhage: result of a ruptured artery edema (accumulation of fluid) + impairment of sodium-potassium pump (accumulation of sodium inside neurons) = excess release of glutamate (overstimulate neurons) excessive positive ions in neuron block metabolism in the mitochondria and kill neurons |
| tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) | drug that breaks up blood clots; should be received within 3 hours of a stroke |
| penumbra | the region surrounding the immediate damage these cells may be saved by prolonged cooling, cannaboids (anti-inflammatory actions), or omega-3 acids (help block apoptosis and other nerve damage) |
| Diaschisis | refers to the decreased activity of surviving neurons after damage to other neurons can be "helped" by: 1) electrical stimulation 2) stimulants such as amphetamines |
| Regrowth of axons | Axons can grow back unlike destroyed cell bodies grows ~1 mm per day, following its myelin sheath back to the original target |
| Why is axon regeneration limited in mammals? | 1) cut in nervous system causes scars to form (thicker in mammals than in fish) 2) neurons on the two sides of the cut pull apart 3) glia in CNS respond to brain damage --> release chemicals that inhibit axon growth |
| Collateral sprouting | |
| Two types of collateral sprouting in the hippocampus | 1) damage to a set of axons induces sprouting by similar axons 2) damage induces sprouting from unrelated axons |
| Denervation supersensitivity | heightened sensitivity to a neurotransmitter after the destruction of an incoming axon |
| Disuse supersensitivity | heightened sensitivity due to inactivity by an incoming axon |
| Causes for supersensitivity | 1) increased number of receptors 2) increased effectiveness of receptors (perhaps by changes in the second-messenger system) |
| How do phantom limbs develop? | when the relevant portion of the somatosensory cortex reorganizes and becomes responsive to alternative inputs |
| deafferented | when a limb loses its sensory (afferent) input |
| Thomas LeVere / rats | studied rats with damage to the visual cortex rats previously learned to approach white card for food --> visual cortex damage --> more easily learn to reapproach white card than black card lesion to visual cortex does not destroy the memory trace but instead impairs the rat's ability to find it |
| law of specific nerve energies | activity by a particular nerve always conveys the same kind of information to the brain e.g neuron #1 --> light neuron #2 --> sound |
| Structure of the eye | |
| Route within the retina | Receptors at back of the eye --> bipolar cells --> ganglion cells far back --> center |
| amacrine cells | get information from bipolar cells and send it to other bipolar cells, amacrine, and ganglion cells some refine input to ganglion cells, enabling them to respond specifically to shapes, movements, and other visual features |
| optic nerve | formed by ganglion cell axons exiting through the back of the eye 2nd cranial nerve; blood vessels come up; how the eye is connected to the brain; retina stops |
| lens | helps light to focus in eye |
| pupil | bigger or smaller (depending on the parasympathetic nervous system); surrounded by the iris |
| iris | surrounds the pupil; acts as a shutter, getting bigger or smaller |
| vitreous humor | jelly-like substance that helps keep the eyeball round |
| retina | light-sensitive layer of tissue (sensitive to photons) lines the back of the eye |
| fovea | depression in the retina; portion of retina that's aligned with the center of the visual field blood vessels & ganglion cell axons almost absent near fovea tight packing of receptors; each receptor connects to a single bipolar cell --> single ganglion cell --> axon to brain good acuity (sensitivity to detail) 1) layers move & allow access to photoreceptors 2) cones (more spatial resolution) 3) packing density of receptors is very high |
| midget ganglion cells | ganglion cells in the fovea small & responds to a single cone |
| Retina | 300 microns thick; around 60 cell types in the retina RECEPTORS: a) photoreceptors b) rods & cones |
| Morphology of rods & cones | outer segment that is a membrane that goes back & forth and stacks upon itself |
| Rhodopsin | receptor molecules on plates (on the outer segments of rods & cones) that detect light photon hits rhodopsin --> shape changes --> molecule activated --> channel opens an outer membrane |
| Rods | detect presence or absence of light monochromatic very sensitive mostly found in periphery |
| Cones | abundant in and near the fovea code color (chromatic) not very sensitive/takes more light to fire |
| Photopigments | chemicals contained in rods & cones that release energy when struck by light consist of 11-cis-retinal bound to opsins (modifies photopigment's sensitivity to different wavelengths of light) 11-cis-retinal --> all-trans-retinal --> release energy --> activate second messenger |
| Ratio of rods to cones | 20:1 ratio of rods to cones in human retina 120 million rods : 6 million cones high cones:rod ratio would mean highly active during the day |
| Human foveal vision vs peripheral vision | |
| Route inside the retina | |
| receptive field | point in visual space that causes a cell to be activated |
| Diagram of lateral inhibition | |
| Things to remember about lateral inhibition | horizontal cells have no axon --> depolarization decays with distance excited horizontal cells --> inhibit bipolar cells |
| lateral inhibition | the reduction of activity in one neuron by activity in neighboring neurons serves to heighten contrast; accentuate borders |
| Multiple cells stimulated (lateral inhibition diagram) | |
| center-surround field | |
| Young-Helmholtz theory | We perceive color through relative rates of response by three kinds of cones --> each one maximally sensitive to a different set of wavelengths |
| Rods + three cones wavelength graph | |
| Distribution of cones | long and medium length cones more abundant (>) than short-wavelength cones easier to see tiny red, yellow, or green dots versus blue dots |
| Cone sensitivity | 400 - 700 nm of light seen peak firing rate: blue cone - 450 nm green cone - 525 nm red/yellow cone - 555 nm |
| opponent process theory | proposed by Ewald Hering; increase in response produces one perception versus decrease in response produces a different perception |
| color constancy | the ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting |
| retinex theory | the cortex compares information from various parts of the retina to determine the brightness and color for each area |
| color blindness/color vision deficiency | caused by a lack of one or two types of cones or three cones (but one is abnormal) most common type: long and medium wavelength cones have same pigment (trouble distinguishing red from green) |
| parvocellular (X) neurons | small cell bodies & small receptive fields; mostly in or near the fovea useful in acuity (detecting patterns) |
| magnocellular (Y) neurons | larger cell bodies and receptive fields spread out evenly among retina used in detecting movement |
| koniocellular (w) neurons | spread all over the place a mix of sizes |
| Receptive field (of a receptor vs a cell) | |
| Visual fields & hemiretinas | |
| Visual information crossing | right visual world --> left halves of retina --> left side of brain right visual field --> temporal hemiretina of left eye ; nasal hemiretina of right eye INFORMATION FROM THE TEMPORAL HEMIRETINA DOES NOT CROSS THE OPTIC CHIASM |
| optic chiasm | the part in the brain where the optic nerves partially cross |
| Visual pathway information | optic nerve --> chiasm --> optic tract info from one eye --> chiasm --> info from two eyes |
| What happens if you cut the optic nerve? | You lose vision in that eye |
| What happens if you crush the optic chiasm? | You lose input from the nasal hemiretina from both eyes REMEMBER: the temporal hemiretina doesn't cross the optic chiasm |
| What happens if you cut the optic tract? | You have the nasal part of one eye working and the temporal part of the opposite eye working |
| What does the retina innervate? | 1) hypothalamus - suprachiasmatic nucleus (main control of the circadian rhythms for sleep and body temperature) 2) superior colliculus (tectum) - retinotopic map of the eye - involved in moving eyes (outputs to neck/shoulder muscles) 3) thalamus (lateral geniculate nucleus) - sends information to the primary visual cortex - begins at area 17 --> travels to other areas |
| Pathway of visual information from the thalamus | visual info --> lateral geniculate nucleus --> primary visual cortex in the occipital cortex (area V1) --> secondary visual cortex (area V2) area V1 is essential for conscious visual perception |
| ventral stream | "what" pathway; specialized for identifying and recognizing objects visual path in the temporal cortex a) mixed magnocellular and parvocellular path --> posterior inferior temporal cortex color & brightness b) mostly parvocellular path --> inferior temporal cortex complex shape analysis |
| dorsal stream | "where" or "how" pathway helps motor system find and use objects visual pathway in parietal cortex a) mostly magnocellular path --> posterior parietal cortex movement perception |
| Lateral geniculate nucleus | organized so that there is a proportionally larger space dedicated to analyzing the fovea versus peripheral vision |
| How the lateral geniculate is organized | many different layers layers move from fovea --> periphery segregate into separate bands (x vs y vs w cells) ipsilateral & contralateral ganglions stick together |
| Hubel & Wiesel's experiment | take cat --> knock 'em out --> insert electrode in visual cortex --> view projector on screen |
| Simple cell | receptive field with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones responds to lines of a particular orientation/in a particular plane |
| Complex cells | located in areas V1 and V2 responds to a pattern of light in a particular orientation anywhere in its large receptive field responds strongly to a stimulus moving perpendicular to its axis (e.g. a vertical bar moving horizontally) |
| Hypercomplex cells | aka end-stopped like simple & complex but lines can only be so long |
| inferior temporal cortex | specific pattern responses respond almost equally to its negative image or mirror image but not where the figure looked to be part of a background |
| visual agnosia | inability to recognize objects --> results from damage in the temporal cortex |
| prosopagnosia | inability to recognize faces occurs after damage to the fusiform gyrus of the inferior temporal cortex, especially the right hemisphere |
| color perception | depends on parvocellular and koniocellular pathways area V4 --> related to color constancy and visual attention |
| Area MT (middle temporal cortex) and MST (medial superior temporal cortex) | receive input mostly from magnocellular pathway MT: responds selectively when something moves in a particular direction at a particular speed dorsal area of MST: expansion, contraction, or rotation of a large visual scene ventral area of MST: cells that record movement of object & cells that record movement of entire background converge --> cells respond to object that moves relative to background |
| sensitive period | period of time when experiences have a particularly strong and enduring experience ends with an onset of chemicals that stabilize synapses and inhibit axonal sprouting |
| strabismus (strabismic amblyopia) | "lazy eye"; a condition where the eyes do not point in the same direction each cortical cell increases its responsiveness to axons with synchronized activities |
| Cataracts effect on early infancy | during early infancy, crossed pathways from two eyes develop faster than uncrossed pathways an infant with a left eye cataract has limited visual input to the right hemisphere --> mild impairments in facial recognition |
| amplitude | intensity of a sound wave measured in decibels (log scale) 0 - 120 dB |
| frequency | number of compressions per second; measured in Hertz optimal range: 20 Hz - 20 kHz (upper range drops down as you age) human voice speaking (600 - 4 kHz) |
| timbre | basic tone is 440 Hz but it is composed of many tones above/below conglomeration of many frequencies |
| pinna | external ear alters the reflections of sound waves |
| auditory canal/external auditory meatus | sound waves pass through here after the pinna leads to the ear drum |
| tympanic membrane (ear drum) | located in the middle ear vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves that strike it |
| middle ear | transmits vibrations of the ear drum three ossicles - malleus - incus - stapes |
| eustachian tube | comes out of middle ear used for equalizing pressure |
| cochlea | snail-shaped structure that changes sound pressure vibration to neural code three fluid filled tubes: 1) scala vestibuli 2) scala media 3) scala tympani |
| Structure of ear | |
| Structure of cochlea | |
| organ of corti | receptor organ for hearing located in the mammalian cochlea receptor cells (hair cells) embedded into the organ |
| How does sound get transformed into electrical impulses? | Tectorial membrane (one side of attached, other is unattached) --> vibrates as a slightly diff frequency than sound --> causes a sheer force (hair cells move) each hair cell is connected to each other; moves; allows ion channels to open up |
| Place theory | basilar membrane resembles strings of a piano higher frequency closer to attached end near the oval window however, some parts of membrane bound too tightly for this to happen |
| Frequency theory | basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with sound; causes auditory nerve to produce action potentials at the same frequency |
| Volley theory | sum of all neurons = frequency of waves used for ~ 200-600 Hz |
| Current theory of sound | low frequency sounds (up to about 100 Hz) - frequency theory higher frequency = volley theory (up to 4000 Hz) highest frequency = place theory (stiff cells by base of cochlea = higher frequency, apex = floppy = lower frequencies) |
| amusia | impaired detection of frequency changes (tone deafness) associated with thicker than avg auditory cortex in the right hemisphere but less than avg white matter |
| cochlear nucleus | innervated by the organ of corti a number of nuclei down in the brainstem receives input from ipsilateral ear only |
| primary auditory cortex (A1) | area in the superior temporal cortex where auditory information ends up |
| Auditory system "what" pathway | sensitive to patterns of sound anterior temporal cortex |
| Auditory system "where" pathway | sensitive to sound location located in the posterior temporal cortex and parietal cortex |
| Damage to the superior temporal cortex | causes motion deafness can hear sounds but do not detect that a source of sound is moving |
| conductive deafness | middle ear deafness three bones can't amplify sound properly |
| nerve deafness | inner ear deafness results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve can be selective frequencies |
| Sound localization | 1) time of arrival 2) phase 3) intensity (sound shadow) |
| Difference in intensity | sound shadow (sound is louder for the closer ear) accurate sound localization for 2000-3000 Hz |
| Time of arrival | sound coming directly from side of ear (~600 microseconds before hitting other) intermediate locations (reach two ears with delay of 0 - 600 microseconds) |
| Phase difference between ears | |
| How do humans localize frequencies? | Low freq = phase differences High freq = loudness differences sudden sound = time of onset |
| Comparison of visual vs auditory pathway | Visual: light --> retina --> lateral geniculate nucleus --> cerebral cortex or from retina --> superior colliculus Auditory: sound --> hair cells --> cochlear nucleus --> brain steam auditory nucleus --> inferior colliculus --> medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus) --> primary auditory cortex |
| vestibular system | consists of three parts: saccule, utricle, and three semicircular canals otoliths suspended in a viscous fluid; bend hair cells semicircular canals - bidirectional accelorometers acceleration of head causes jelly-like liquid to push against hair cells |
| Somatosensory system | the sensation of the body and its movements |
| Pacinian corpuscle | detects sudden displacements or high-frequency vibrations on the skin onion-like outer structure protects against gradual or constant pressure sudden stimulus --> bends membranes --> sodium ions enter --> depolarization |
| Different somatosensory receptors | |
| Somatosensory system receptors | 1) proprioceptors - involved in telling where your body is in space - muscle spindles (measure muscle tension) - golgi tendon organ (measures stretch of tendon) 2) exteroreceptors - outside body - mechanoreceptors (detect movement of skin) a) light touch b) vibration c) deep touch - nocioceptors - pain information a) large, myelinated fibers - fast onset/fast offset (sharp pain) b) thin fibers - slow onset/slow offset (dull, throbbing pain) - thermoreceptors a) hot b) cold |
| Somatosensory pathway | dorsal horn --> mechanoreceptors (one side) --> nocio/thermoreceptors (goes up contralateral side) --> thalamus --> cerebral cortex --> very front of parietal lobe/just behind frontal lobe |
| Neurotransmitters released by pain axons | mild pain: glutamate stronger pain: glutamate and substance P |
| Pain pathway vs touch pathway | PAIN: crosses immediately from the receptors on one side of the body to a tract ascending the contralateral side VS TOUCH: travels up ipsilateral side to medulla where it crosses to the contralateral side |
| Cingulate cortex | area of the brain that activates when you have sympathetic pain |
| opioid mechanisms | systems that respond to opiate drugs and similar chemicals opiates bind to receptors found mostly in the spinal cord and the periaqueductal gray area of the midbrain |
| gate theory | spinal cord neurons that receive messages from pain receptors also receive input from touch receptors and from axons descending from the brain |
| What do morphines inhibit? | thinner axons that carry dull post-surgical pain |
| cannabinoids | act mainly in the periphery of the body rather than the CNS |
| capsaicin | a chemical found in jalapenos that stimulates pain receptors high doses damage pain receptors |
| Itch | caused by two things 1) mild tissue damage --> skin releases histamines --> blood vessels dilate 2) contact with certain plants (e.g. cowhage) activate certain neurons that produce gastrin-releasing peptide |
| labelled-line code | each cell means one particular thing each receptor responds to a limited range of stimuli meaning depends on what neurons are active |
| across-fiber code | meaning depends on the pattern of cells each receptor responds to a wider range of stimuli |
| taste buds | receptors on the tongue located in papillae (either fungiform, circumveate, or foliate [ found on grooves at the back of the tongue] constantly regenerating send information through cranial nerve 7, 9, 10 (facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus) --> nucleus of tractus solitarus --> thalamus --> cerebral cortex (insula, primary taste cortex) each hemisphere receives input from ipsilateral side of tongue |
| Mechanisms of taste receptors | Sweetness, bitterness, and umami --> G-protein --> second messanger Salt --> sodium channel Sour --> detects presence of acids |
| Olfaction | the sense of smell; response to chemicals that contact the membranes inside the nose |
| olfactory cells | line the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal air passages each olfactory cell has cilia that extend from the cell body into the mucous surface of the nasal passage |
| Linda Buck | looked at receptors in rods & cones 300 chemical receptors --> recognized particular functional groups |
| Deleting a gene that controls which channel potassium passes through creates ? | supersmellers dun dun dun |
| vomeronasal organ (VNO) | set of receptors located near but separate from the olfactory receptors |
| apocrine glands | associated with hairs secrete steroids w/ smell after puberty 50% of us can't smell anymore; the other 15% are supersmellers |
| Synesthesia | experience of one sense in response to stimulation of a different sense |
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