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| Questão | Responda |
| Define Inference | moving logically between observations and conclusions |
| Deduction: | general knowledge to specific conclusion. Premise must be correct and logic sound |
| Induction | general condition from specific observation - conclusion must be tested |
| Hypothesis | tentative, testable statement |
| prediction | deductive inference regarding outcome of experiment |
| Law | descriptive generalization about how aspects behave under specific circumstances |
| Explain Lamarck's theory of evolutionary change | evolve based on use, system strengthens with use and changes are heritable, new species formed at bottom of scale, no extinction or common ancestry |
| Challenges to Natural Selection (4) | Neo-Lamarckism, Mutationism (new species formed all at once), Orthogenesis (internal forces), Saltationism (evolution my macromutations) |
| What ruled out Lamarckian evolution? | discovery of germ line/somatic line differentiation |
| Explain evolution as fact, theory and path | Fact - species related by decent, theory - mechanisms, path - actual course of evolution |
| Transitional Fossil | shows some traits only found in ancestor and some only in descendant OR an intermediate feature |
| Atavism | reappearance of ancestral trait in modern individuals (ex. horse toes, bird teeth) |
| Evidence for Natural Selection (6) | Fossil Record, Biogeography, Homology, Embryology, Atavisms, Vestigial Structures, Suboptimality |
| Polytomy and soft polytomy | unresolved/multi-branching node, soft = branching unknown |
| Cladogram vs. Phylogram | Cladogram only good for topology (relatedness), phylogram lengths signify amount of divergence |
| Microevolution | small scale processes operating within populations to change allele frequencies |
| Macroevolution | large scale patterns of change above the species level (includes origin of new species) |
| Extrapolationists | evolution = change in allele frequency, macroevolution = extrapolated microevolution |
| Macroevolutionists | multi-level/hierarchical selection |
| Mendel's First Law (Segregation) | alleles separate during gamete production (1 from each parent) |
| Mendel's Second Law (independent assortment) | alleles at different loci separate with no effect on each other |
| Population: | group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring |
| Gene Pool | set of all copies of all alleles in a population that can be passed to the next generation |
| Assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg (4) | large gene pool, no alleles lost or gained, no migration, random mating |
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation | p^2+2pq+q^2=1, p+q=1 |
| Transition vs. Transversion | Point mutations, transition = purine to purine/pyrimidine to pyrimidine, transversion = purine to pyrimidine |
| Translocation | chromosome mutation - piece of one chromosome breaks off and joins another |
| Polyploidy | occurs by hybridization in cell division, multiple copies of entire genome |
| Mutation Rate | measure of how commonly new mutations occur (μ) |
| reasons for varied mutation rates (5) | sexual/asexual reproduction, generation time, mutagen exposure, repair efficiency, other properties |
| Darwin's postulates (4) | individuals are variable, variability is heritable, some individuals are more successful than others, success associated with heritable traits |
| Natural Selection | non-random differences in survival and reproduction |
| frequency of deleterious recessive alleles at equilibrium | q= root (μ/s) |
| Types of Natural Selection (4) | Stabilizing (against extremes), Diversifying (for extremes), Directional (against one extreme), balancing (maintenance of multiple alleles) |
| Genetic Drift | Random changes in allele frequency due to sampling error (unpredictable) |
| Types of Genetic Drift (3) | Population bottleneck, founder effect, gamete sampling error |
| Explain "Drunkards Walk" | probability of neutral allele becoming fixed in a population = current frequency |
| Average time and likelihood for new allele to reach fixation | probability = 1/2N (population size), time = 4N generations |
| likelihood of fixation for present allele | x/2N (x=current # of allele copies) |
| Effective Population Size | number of breeding individuals in a population Ne = 4NmNf/ (Nm + Nf) |
| Gene Flow | Movement of alleles from one population to another (makes populations more similar) |
| Inbreeding | non-random mating of genetic relatives with each other, results in reduction in # of heterozygotes |
| Inbreeding Coefficient (F) | likelihood of getting same allele twice in descendants (identical by descent) |
| Inbreeding depression | reduction in fitness resulting from combining of unfavourable alleles |
| Adaptive Radiation | divergence of one ancestral species into several species that occupy different niches |
| EPP | Extra pair paternity - different male raising offspring |
| Longevity | # of times an individual mates, largest determinant of overall fitness |
| Adaptations | characteristic that enhances fitness of individual relative to alternatives, evolved through natural selection |
| Direct Adaptive Evolution | point A to point B, all intermediate forms are functional and favoured |
| Indirect Evolution | no end goal, past and current function can be different |
| mechanisms of indirect evolution (6) | exaptation (cooption), duplication, gene sharing, tinkering (bricolage), collage, scaffolding |
| Exaptation | coopted for given function but originally evolved for another reason (followed by secondary adaptation) |
| Exaptation possibilities (7) | existing to new function, second function, existing modified so new function is possible, multiple functions - becomes specialized, divergence of redundant organs, reduced to new function, non-functional to functional |
| Collage | existing materials brought together to take on new function |
| Reasons for suboptimality | genetic drift, balancing selection, mutation-selection balance, lack of foresight of natural selection, adaptation to past conditions, antagonistic pleiotropy, trade-offs, constraints |
| Types of constraints (4) | genetic, physical, developmental, historical |
| Antagonistic pleiotropy | one gene does multiple things, one of which is bad |
| trade-offs | investment in one feature at expense of another |
| Panglossian Paradigm | all things have been created for the best purpose (adaptationism) |
| Scaffolding | supportive component is present early on but then lost, leaving behind indivisibly complex structure |
| stratigraphy | study of layers of rock |
| uniformitarianism | ongoing, constant processes shaping earth |
| significance of Natural History of Creation | beginning of ideas similar to Darwin, originally published anonymously |
| 3 pieces of evidence that DNA is genetic material | involved in transformations of bacteria, constant within species, used by viruses to infect host |
| Chargaff's Rules | 1:1 ratio of A:G and T:C, base pair compostion varies among species |
| "purifying" selection | directional selection removing an unwanted allele |
| frequency dependant selection | fitness depends on abundance of trait (can be positive or negative) |
| Gene flow equation | P’I = (1-m)(PI) + (m)(PC), equilibrium = 0 = m(Pc-Pi) |
| A1A1 frequency, A1A2 frequency | p2(1-F) + pF, 2pq(1-F) |
| steps of direct adaptive evolution (3) | fittest leave more offspring, offspring distribution skewed towards fitter traits, mutation introduces new variation |
| hypothetic-deductive method | predictions can be tested by new observations (used where experimentation is difficult) |
| explain "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" | development shows evolutionary processes (wrong) |
| How do byproducts of dimorphism occur? | trait evloves as adaptation for one sex, feature is produced early in embryo or before sexual differentiation |
| Allometry | differential growth rates between features |
| Reasons for features to become vestigial (3) | natural selection, genetic drift, correlation with other features (trade-off) |
| reasons vestigial structures remain (4) | some partial function, further reduction has direct consequences, indirect consequences, not lost yet |
| Population Genetics | includes natural selection and genetic drift, allows predictions on what happens to alleles in entire populations and across many generations |
| Adaptations to... (6) | energy intake, defence, locomotion, physical environment, sensing, reproduction |
| Secondary Adaptation | mutations that enhance new function of a feature are selected for |
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