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FlashCards por Kate Nanovic, atualizado more than 1 year ago
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Criado por Kate Nanovic
aproximadamente 2 anos atrás
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| Questão | Responda |
| judgement | the process through which people draw conclusions from the evidence they encounter |
| attribute substitution | rely on easily assessed information as a proxy for the information you really need; heuristics |
| Frequency estimate | assessment of how often various events have occured in the past |
| How do we make frequency estimates when we don;t have the quantitative information? | use the information that we have readily available to use, heuristics |
| Heuristic | an efficient strategy that usually leads to the right answer |
| availability heuristic | form of attribute substitution where you rely on the information you have available to you |
| How is memory involved in the availability heuristic? Provide an example. | organization of memory causes certain things to be more available than other, causing bias Ex: easier to come up with words that start with r rather than words with r in the 3rd position |
| What explains why people buy lottery tickets even though winning is so rare? | availability heuristic - people see when there are winners more often because it is reported, do not see how many people are losing or consider those numbers |
| Representativeness heuristic | attribute substitution where judgements are made based on resemblance to known cases |
| Gambler's fallacy | belief that you know the next outcome based on observation of past outcomes, even with independent events |
| covariation | two variables tend to be seen or not seen together; can be strong or weak, postiive or negative |
| Why do we experience illusion of covariation? | people consider a subset of facts that is skewed by their prior expectations, causing mistaken judgements - selection of evidence based on confirmation bias, base-rate neglect |
| confirmation bias | being more alert to evidence that confirms your beliefs rather than evidence that challenges them |
| base-rate neglect | ignoring how often something occurs in general when making assessments |
| Kahneman and Tversky | base-rate neglect: lawyer vs. engineer experiment - descriptions caused guesses that ignored whether the proportion was 70/30 lawyers or 70/30 engineers framing effect/prospect theory |
| Dual-process models | there are two ways of thinking: fast and slow |
| Type I way of thinking | fast, easy, use of heuristics, error-prone |
| Type II way of thinking | slower and effortful, analytic, more accurate |
| When do we use the Type I way of thinking? When do we use Type II? | Type II is used in presence of triggers: |
| How can we mitigate base-rate neglect? | cast in terms of frequencies (12 out of every 100) instead of proportions (3/25) or percentages (12%) |
| How does random chance factor into our judgements? | fast, accurate judgements are more likely if the role of random chance is clear - people will more likely consider it a fluke and rely on higher quantities of evidence |
| cognitive reflection test | three questions in which the obvious answer is wrong - our type I thinking fails us |
| induction | process through which you make forecasts about new cases based on cases you've observed so far |
| deduction | process in which you start with claims or assertions that you count as given and ask what follows from these premises |
| Subtypes of confirmation bias | only pulling supportive evidence from memory, scrutinizing new evidence that is inconsistent with your beliefs, reinterpreting information to make it match your beliefs or make it negligible |
| Belief preserverance | when disconfirming evidence is undeniable but remains neglected |
| categorical syllogisms | type of logical argument that begins with two assertions (premises), each containing a statement about a category, and a conclusion that may or may not follow the premises stated |
| valid syllogisms | the conclusion follows the premises stated |
| invalid syllogisms | the conclusion does not follow the premises stated |
| Why did we conclude that invalid syllogisms are accurate? | errors in logical reasoning |
| belief bias | if a syllogism's conclusion is something that someone believes to be true, they're likely to judge the conclusion as valid; same for a false circumstance with rejection |
| Four-card task | four cards and a conditional statement given, people usually flip the wrong cards to check the condition completely |
| conditional statement | if X, then Y (gauranteed) |
| What does the four card task show us? | people are inconsistent at checking conditions, but accuracy in reasoning varies with content showing that quality of thinking is uneven |
| utility maximization | making decision that will bring the most value for the lowest cost |
| How does framing affect decision making? | If the frame is in terms of losses, decision makers are risk seeing (to avoid the loss); if the frame is in terms of gains, decision makers are risk averse (holding tight to what they already have) |
| endowment effect | tendency to put higher value on your current status and possessions |
| What phenomenom explains why there are less organ donors in the US compared to other countries? | In US, we must opt-in to being donors. In other countries, it is the default. People are more likely to maintain their current status - endowment effect |
| reason-based choice | focus on justifications for each decision, shift in framing causes a change in the factors relevant to justification |
| How can framing change our deicisons when it does not change the utility for the outcomes? | people are get distracted by framing and are bad at making utility decisions; people use reason-based choices and justifications for choices can change based on the framing |
| How does emotion play a role in decision making? | we assess risk in emotional terms- how much dread experienced when thinking about the outcome as an indicator of risk; somatic markers |
| somatic markers | bodily reactions in response to memories and anticipated events |
| orbitofrontal cortex | crucial for somatic marker use because it enables you to interpret your emotions; damage causes impaired deicison making |
| affective forecasting | your predictions for your own emotions |
| Why is affective forecasting often inaccurate? | overetsimate how long feelings last, underestimate ability to adjust to changes |
| problem space | the set of all states that can be reaached in solving the problem |
| Two types of problem-solving heuristics | hill-climbing strategy and means-end analysis |
| hill-climbing strategy | problem-solving heuristic where at each step you choose the option that moves you in the direction of your goal |
| Limitations of the hill-climbing strategy | many problems require you to take a step back to move forward and people often fail to do this |
| means-end analysis | problem-solving heuristic where you compare your current state to the goal state and ask "What means do I have to make these more alike?" |
| How are pictures and diagrams helpful in problem solving? | makes problems concrete, relying on mental images or pictures |
| Why are analogies useful in problem-solving? What is the problem with analogies? | often problems are similar to past ones so you can rely on experience, but people rarely use them unless instructed because our memory is not organized that way (we rely on superficial features, not broad principles) |
| Mapping | map the problem out mentally to better able yourself to solve it |
| How do analogies improve problem solving? | rely on past experience, pay attention to the underlying dynamic of the problem |
| What do experts do differently when solving problems? | use analogies (define the underlying dynamic), create subproblems (organize knowledge) |
| ill-defined problems | no clear statement at the outset of how the goal should be characterized or what operations might serve to reach that goal |
| What is the best way to approach an ill-defined problem? | create subgoals to move forward, add structure with constraints or assumptions (narrowing set of options in how you might approach it and creating a goal) |
| well-defined problems | clear goal and options - still more than one way to understand the problem |
| functional fixedness | tendency to be rigid in how one thinks about an object's function - barrier to problem solving |
| problem-solving set | collection of beliefs and assumptions a person makes about a problem |
| Uses and limitations of problem-solving sets | Useful in showing you which ideas are foolish - which options are plausible, physically possible, and so one Limiting because of in the box thinking - barrier to problem solving |
| nine-dot problem | task to draw a line through grid of nine dots - people fail because they rely on their problem-solving set "lines cannot go outside the grid" "try to cancel out as many dots with each stroke" |
| Creative individuals generally... | have great knowledge or skill in their domain; certain personality traits; intrinsically motivated; in the right place at the right time; can discern which randomly produced products have value |
| personality traits of a creative individual | willing to take risks, ignore criticism, ability to tolerate ambiguous findings or situations, inclination not to follow the crowd |
| What does it mean to say that creative individuals are in the right place at the right time? | they were in environments that allowed them freedom but also appropriate supports |
| Wallas's 4 stages of creative thought | preparation, incubation, illumination, verification |
| 1. preparation | the problem solver gathers information and does some work on the problem but with little progress |
| incubation | problem solver sets the problem aside and seems not to be working on it but continues to work on it unconsciously |
| illumination | key insight or new idea emerges |
| verification | person confirms that the new idea really does lead to a solution and works out the details |
| evidence that Aha!moments aren't real. What might they be instead? | some people thought they were close and got the answer soon after, others slammed into a dead end might mean you discovered a new appraoch to the problem that you had not yet considered |
| Proposals for why there is inconsistency in determining whether incubation is real | incubation is disrupted under pressure, depends on what you do during incubation (are you allowing your mind to wander), fatigue and frustration fade, forget earlier approach that wasn't working |
| Why do some claim that your mind must wander during incubation? | activation can flow wherever your memory connections take it, possibly leading to new ideas being activated |
| What do experts and creative people do when solving problems? | heuristics, analogies, hard work, hints, discern what answers/products actually have value, luck |
| convergent thinking | ability to spot ways in which seemingly distinct ideas might be interconnected |
| divergent thinking | ability to move one's thoughts in novel, unanticipated ways; come up with large numbers of new ideas that can be evaluated for value |
| Remote association test | given three words and must come up with one more thing that fits with the trio - demonstrates convergent thinking |
| Binet | intelligence is a capacity that matters for many aspects of cogntiive functioning - test includes range of tasks |
| Binet test score | ratio between someone's mental age (development reflected in the test) and his or her chronological age *100 = IQ |
| intelligence quotient | IQ score derived from binet test that now applies to any IQ test |
| Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | assess general knowledge, vocab, and comprehension, and a perceptual-reasoning scale with puzzles; separate tests for working memory and speed of intellectual processing |
| Raven's progressive matrices test | measure's a person's ability to analyze figures and detect patterns - series of grids and he or she must select option to complete grid; designed to minimize influence of verbal skills or background knowledge |
| Reliability | how consistent a measure is from one occasion to another |
| Is test-retest reliability high or low for IQ tests? | high - we can usually predict IQs later in life |
| When might an IQ test not have test-retest reliability? | the person experienced a substantial change in environment |
| validity | whether a test measures what it is supposed to - how well resutls transfer to real life |
| predictive validity of IQ tests | impressive correlation between IQ and measure of academic performance, job performance (some more than others), higher-prestige careers, avoidance of life problems (jail, teen pregnancy) |
| General intelligence | g, cognitive capacity that shapes how well someone does no matter what the specific task might be |
| Factor analysis | looks for common elements that contribute to multiple subtests and therefore link those subtests |
| Spearman | general intelligence (g), factor analysis |
| hierarchial model of intelligence | some tasks depend more on g than others and can be grouped by this, there are other forms of categorizations below that |
| Fluid intelligence | ability to deal with novel problems |
| When does fluid intelligence peak? crystalized? | fluid - early adulthood crystalized increases with age |
| What can deteriorate fluid intelligence earlier? | alcohol consumption, depression, fatigue |
| crystalized intelligence | involves your acquired knowledge, verbal and skills, useful for dealing with problems similar to ones you have already encountered |
| Correlation between fluid and crystalized intelligence | high and positive correlation |
| inspection time | time a person needs to decide which of two lines is longer or which of two tones is higher - measure of neural processing speed |
| Working-memory capacity (WMC) | measure of executive control - how well people can monitor and direct their own thought processes |
| practical intelligence | sophisticated reasoning in day to day settings - street smart |
| intelligence vs rationality | people who are smart can also be those who ignore facts, are overconfident in their judgements, insensitive to inconsistencies in their views, and more - we need different measures for them |
| rationality | the capacity for critically assessing information as it is gathered in the natural environment |
| emotional intelligence | ability to understand one’s own emotions and others’, as well as the ability to control one’s emotions when appropriate |
| Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences | there are 8 intelligences: 3 tested in IQ tests (linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial) and also musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic |
| Savant syndrome | low IQ scores but other incredible talents, perhaps high in a different type of intelligence not measured in IQ tests |
| evidence of genetics in intelligence | relatives have similar IQ scores even if raised in different environments |
| evidence for environment in intelligence | living in poverty impedes intellectual development (longer in poverty, greater harm and improving environment can increase IQ); Flynn Effect |
| Flynn Effect | intelligence scores have been increasing over the last few years and results are stronger in fluid intelligence (ravin's matrices for example) - environmental effect |
| Why can we say that the Flynn Effect is due to environmental factors of intelligence and not genetic? | the human genome is changing but not as a speed commensurate with the effect |
| Reasons for different average intelligences between groups | different treatments, different role models, different assumptions about available life paths open to them, stereotype threat, availability of nutrition, healthcare, education |
| Stereotype threat | negative impact that social stereotypes can have on task performance - performing worse because you are expected to |
| How can education be better suited to increase intelligence? | focus on increasing executive control (fluid intelligence) as well as crystalized; address individual's attitudes and beliefs about their own intelligence |
| cognitive unconscious | broad set of mental activities that you are not aware of but that make possible your ordinary interactions with the world |
| Difference between products and processes | products are beliefs and conclusions that you consciously experience; processes are how you get your mental products and you are generally unaware of them |
| unconscious reasoning | feedback/your understanding after the fact can distort your memory of an event |
| mistaken introspections | thinking you know why you acted someway but you're wrong; after-the-fact reconstruction |
| after-the-fact reconstruction | no direct infomration so you draw on broader knowledge and how people act in general to determine why you acted as you did - does not feel like an inference, feels like a memory |
| What does it mean to say that consciousness is guided by unconscious frameworks? | sometimes your decisions are based on clear inner dialouge with yourself or based on a visual image but you still need the unconscious to provide a support structure |
| What is the framework that the unconscious provides when problem solving? | problem-solving set |
| Korsakoff's syndrome | no conscious memory of events they’ve witness or things they’ve done, but normal in tests with implicit memory |
| Blind sight | brain damage to the visual cortex; cannot see or navigate or respond to light, but can accurately answer questions about their visual surroundings |
| subliminal perception | Can perceive and be influenced by visual inputs but did not consciously perceive them |
| Pros and cons of cognitive unconscious | fast, efficient, reasonable, unsupervisied, but relies on current situation or habits. You draw conclusions and make choices based on familiarity or by the setting automatically - no control |
| action slips | cases in which you do something different from what you intend; doing what is typical |
| What processes are governed by the unconscious (go without executive control)? | some due to biological sequences of events (structure of the nervous system); others out of practice |
| What do we need to rise above habit and avoid responding to prominent cues in our surroundings? | executive control |
| What does executive control need to rise above habit? | means of launching desired actions and overriding unwanted actions, way of representing its goals and subgoals to serve as guides to action, know what's going on in the mind (whats coming in and how it can be integrated), know how easily current processing are unfolding (is adjustment needed) |
| metacognition | skills in monitoring and controlling own mental processes |
| support for plants assessing risk | When nutrients were low, plants laid more roots in the unpredictable pot But when nutrients were abundant, they chose the one that always had the same amount Plants knew the best time to take risks |
| Metacognition vs. Executive control | both need self-control, self-direction, guided by goals (on the spot or long-standing beliefs) but executive control is concerned with all sorts of self-monitoring and self-control, not just memory or thoughts |
| mind wandering | Start thinking about something else - aware of what you are thinking about, but not aware that your mind is wandering…and then you realize your thoughts have moved away from your task |
| How can we mitigate mind wandering? | active engagement and training in mindfulness |
| neural correlates of consciousness | what changes when we consciously experience something |
| Two different types of neural networks responsible for consciousness | those dealing with level of alertness and those dealing with the content |
| What brain areas are associated with level of alertness in consciousness? | thalamus, reticular activating system in the brain stem |
| reticular activating system | in the brain stem, controls the overall arousal level of the forebrain and also helps control the cycling between sleep and wakefulness |
| What brain areas are associated with you being consciously aware of sights in front of you (or of an visual image you've created)? | cortical structures in the visual system |
| What brain areas are associated with you being consciously aware of stimuli that are no longer present in your environment? | cortical structures in the forebrain |
| neuronal workspace hypothesis | integrated activity, made possible by workspace neurons, provides the biological basis for consciousness |
| binding problem | task of linking together the different aspects of experience in order to create a coherent whole |
| How does attention help solve the binding problem? | attention allows systems to fire in synchrony, allowing the brain to register the activity as a linkage among different processing areas and perceiving the stimulus as a unified whole |
| workspace neurons | neurons that connect one area of the brain to another; create a unified experience and promote exchange of information |
| What does it mean that workspace neurons are selective? | not every bit of neural activity gets linked to every other bit; various mechanisms create a competition among different brain area processes and the winner (most active process) is communicated to other brain areas, while other information is not |
| What determines which elements win when the brain is integrating information? | Attention - activity of the prefrontal cortex can sustain and amplify the activity in other neural systems |
| How can we link the neuronal workspace hypothesis to executive function? | Neuronal workspace enables you to integrate neural processes, allowing you to reflect on relationships among various inputs or ideas and allows you to produce new combinations of ideas and new combinations of operations - enabling escape from habit/unconscious processing |
| anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) | detects conflicts between processes trying to be integrated; pivotal roles in emotion, motivation, and feelings of reward |
| access consciousness | someone's senstivity to certain types of information (access to that information) |
| Phenomenal consciousness | what it actually feels like to have certain subjective expereinces |
| Two types of consciousness | access and phenomenal |
| Qualia | the subjective expereinces we have with phenomenal consciousness |
| processing fluency | how fast and easy is it to process, how much effort must we put in |
| How can we perceive processing fluency? | not directly but we can perceive when things are familiar - but this can be misleading |
| Why are there memories that we are very confident in that are very inaccurate? | we can retreived them before, making practice for us and increasing the processing fluency of retreiving them - the easier to retrieve a memory, the more confident we are in it |
| mind-body problem | the mind (and the ideas, thoughts, and feelings it contains) is an entirely different sort of entity from the physical body, and yet the two, somehow, can influence each other |
| Phineas Gage | injury to frontal lobe caused lack of social restraint |
| Hebb & Penfield | patients with frontal lobe damage have normal IQ but have lost ability to control or organize their intellect ; Frontal lobe syndrome |
| Frontal lobe syndrome (FLS) | patient has inability to appreciate the nature of their deficit which suggests a breakdown of self-monitoring; loss of ability to sequence actions to achieve goals; can be caused by trauma or disease |
| Evidence for frontal lobe developing last | kids do not have object permanence |
| What is happening evolutionarily to our frontal lobes? | they are growing |
| Rhesus vs. galago monkeys | Rhesus have more developed frontal lobes and have object permanence |
| object permanence | understanding that an object still exists even when you cannot see it |
| Stroop task and executive control | We automatically read words, we need executive control to focus our attention to read the color of the ink |
| Wisconsin card sorting task | sort cards into categories by shape, color, or number of shapes; then sorting criteria changes and we must adjust - damage to PFC causes inability to switch attention once criteria changes |
| Tower of Hanoi | move disks to get larger ones on bottom; requires frontal lobe functions of goals/subgoals, planning, updating working memory, switching attnetion |
| Marshmallow test | one know or two later? can you delay gratification? those who could as kids were seen to do better (better grades, SAT scores correlated) when they were older |
| A not B error | something attractive hidden under box A can be found, experiementer in critical trial moves it to box B and the subject fails to find it, even though they saw the researcher put it there |
| What does the A not B error demonstrate? | lack of object permanence |
| When do children stop making the A not B error? | around 1 year |
| When do infant monkeys stop making the A not B error? | around 4 months |
| How do we know that executive functioning is a component of the frontal cortex? | adult monkeys with lessioning to the dorsolateral prefrtonal cortex make A not B error, those with lesions to posterior parietal cortex or hippocampal formation do not, meaning it is not spatial or memory |
| How can we improve executive functioning? | creative play, especially when with others - have to be able to respond quickly, inhibit things that don't fit the scene, adjust quickly also active engagment - learning |
| Use it or lose it principle | neural networks are kept and thrive when used, wither away and die when not used |
| Why are choices so critical during teenage years? | that is when our brain is pruning our excess connections and choices at that time can shape the rest of our life |
| When do gray matter connections peak and pruning begin? | 11 in girls, 12 in boys |
| Giedd | teenage brain |
| Diamond | A not B error and executive function |
| Difference between boys and girls brains | Boys have more learning disabilities, autism, dyslexia, other things, while girls often have more anorexia nervosa Larger basal ganglia in girls, smaller basal ganglia associated with childhood illnesses |
| Gottman | love lab and the positivity proportion |
| the positivity proportion | succesful couples have five positives for every negative; unsucessful couples occur at a rate or .8 againt 1 |
| emotional coaching for a child | Notice the child's emotions, Let the child feel understood, Help the child label their emotions, Help the child understand his/her feelings, Set limits on behavior: feelings are acceptable while behavior may not be |
| implicit association bias | Test to show if you have an implicit bias against a group - a bias that you do not realize you have |
| Damasio | Iowa gambling task and somatic marker hypothesis |
| Iowa Gambling task | two desk (one low risk, low reward; one high risk, high reward) body feels bad deck after 10 flips, but takes 80 flips for participant to consciously pick the better deck - somatic marker, use of frontal lobe |
| How do people with frontal lobe damage do wth the Iowa gambling task? | do not have physiological |
| empathetic mirror neurons | we feel the paoin that other people feel based on the amount of pain we think they are feeling |
| psychopaths and empathy | do not feel empathy for others (empathetic mirror neurons), but brain areas involved in empathy are active when they imagine themselves (imagine self perspective) in the situation |
| Peggy Mason | acting on empathetic feelings is innate, even in rats but who to help is learned |
| prescriptive theories of decision making | how we should decide, good reasoning and executive control |
| descriptive theories of decision making | how we actually make decisions, departure from prescriptive, rational choice |
| prospect theory | actions are determined by mental representations of situations, not by situations themselves |
| Herb Simon | humans are driven by bounded rationality |
| bounded rationality | choice processes are as rational as they can be given cognitive limitations on the amount of information we can process |
| consciousness | An awareness of the self within the environment |
| How do we measure consciousness? | brain activity levels |
| vigilance | measure of awake behavior for consciousness, eyes open |
| awareness | level/contents of consciousness |
| Two axes of consciousness | vigilance and awareness |
| Glasgow Coma Scale | assessing motor, visual, verbal skills to determine severity of an acute brain injury |
| What does a score of 15 mean on the glasgow coma sclae? | normal functioning |
| How long before consciousness do we actually make a decision? | can be as long as ten seconds before we are aware of our decisions |
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