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| Questão | Responda |
| How can the bladder be imaged? | Radiography, radiography with contrast studies, radiography with IVU and Ultrasound |
| what are the only two conditions which plain radiographs may pick up? | emphysematous cystitis and urolithiasis |
| what is emphysematous cystitis? | accumulation of gas within the bladder wall and lumen secondary to infection with glucose-fermenting bacteria. Most cases are caused by E. coli infection, but Proteus spp., Clostridium spp., and Aerobacter aerogenes have also been reported. Emphysematous cystitis most commonly develops in dogs and cats with diabetes mellitus because of the high concentration of fermentable substrate. Treatment of emphysematous cystitis should be as described for complicated UTI; if glucosuria is present, then appropriate treatment should be initiated for the underlying cause. |
| whats the 'normal' size of the kidney? | 2.5-3.5 x the size of L2 for the dog and 1.9-3.2 x the size of L2 for cats (un-neutered cats have a smaller kidney than the neutered cat) |
| What are 5 causes of enlarged kidneys? | 1- hydronephrosis 2- pyelonephritis 3- poly cystic kidneys 4- Tumour 5- compensatory hypertrophy |
| what are the 4 main contrast studies on the urinary tract? | -positive retrograde vaginourethrogram -positive retrograde urethrogram - double contrast cystogram -IVU (intravenous urography |
| How is an IVU done, what are the 3 stages? | low volume rapid volume ionising contrast. There are three phases which may be seen; vascular nephrogram and pyelogram. |
| why can't both ureters be seen on IVU normally? | they undergo peristalsis |
| what are the main conditions detectible by IVU? | masses, cystic change, hydroureter (pyelonephritis, ectopic ureter and bladder tumours) or hydronephrosis (from obstruction, inflammation, haemorrhage or mass). |
| If IVU is being used to analyse the bladder ureter junction what will increase the sensitivity? | performing a pneumocystogram |
| what do the kidneys commonly look like after ethylene glycol poisoning on U/S? | hyperechoic cortex |
| what are the main reasons for a kidney having a hyper echoic cortex on U/S? | ethylene glycol poisoning, neoplasia, nephritis and renal failure. |
| what do poly cystic kidneys look like on U/S? | anechoic cysts on the kidneys of varying sizes |
| what does a double contrast cystogram show? | bladder and prostates position, it shows the bladders wall thickness as well as the mucosal surface of the bladder. |
| whats the difference between a neoplasia and haemorrhage on double contrast studies? | neoplasias are ragged and stick to things haemorrhages are round and float. |
| how can a mass and cystitis be differentiated on double contrast studies? | a mass will have a definite shoulder whilst cystitis gradually increases and decreases in width. The mucosal wall of cystitis doesn't become bobbly either where as it does on a mass |
| how are retrograde urethrograms carried out? | inserting the catheter injecting a small volume of iodine, clamping and immediately radiographing. |
| what is retrograde urethrogram good for detecting? | male prostatc urethras issues (note that naturally their urethras will narrow at the ischium). This study is less use in females as they are often hard to catherterise and even worse if there is a lesion and as their ureter is so short the catheter is often indistinguishable from the lesion. |
| How can U/S and blood clots be differentiated? | blood clots and neoplasias can be differentiated by looking at the mucosal wall and seeing if all the layers are distinct and present. If one layer is enlarged it is neoplasia whilst if it as separate layer stuck on blood clot is more likely. |
| what is a positive retrograde vaginogram good for, what are their pros and cons? | simple, quick and cheap. Hoever they are time consuming and can be frustrating they are good for differentiating hydronephrosis. |
| how is a positive retrograde vaginogram be carried out? | preloaded catheter is inserted in to the vestibule or distal vagina, the contrast outlines the vagina and vestibule then the ureathra and bladder passively. It must be preloaded as the air bubble can look like a filling defect. On the odd occasion if the animal is conscious or if there is a neoplasm there may be a vaginal rupture. |
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