GGP101 Hydrology 2

Descrição

A-level University Mapa Mental sobre GGP101 Hydrology 2, criado por RoryFlynn2 em 14-11-2014.
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Mapa Mental por RoryFlynn2, atualizado more than 1 year ago
RoryFlynn2
Criado por RoryFlynn2 aproximadamente 10 anos atrás
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Resumo de Recurso

GGP101 Hydrology 2
  1. Global water cycle functions and stores
    1. Key Functions
      1. Supplies freshwater
        1. Drives primary biological production
          1. Regulates climate
            1. Greenhouse effect
              1. Transports heat
            2. Stores (4 main types)
              1. Ocean
                1. Terrestrial waters
                  1. Ice
                    1. Atmosphere
                      1. Storage measured in 10^3 km^3
                        1. Flux within stores
                          1. Flux from ocean to land is most important for terrestrial water resources
                            1. Flux from land to ocean is theoretically equal to difference in Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
                              1. Flux measured in 10^3 km^3yr^-1
                              2. Turnover within stores
                                1. Main control on turnover within stores is surface area : volume ratio
                                2. Exchange between stores
                                  1. Surace to volume ratio
                                    1. Energy available
                                      1. Incoming energy
                                        1. Radioactive and thermal properties of surface
                                        2. Efficiency of energy use
                                          1. Liquid to gas more efficient than solid to liquid/gas
                                          2. Ease of exchange
                                            1. Most exchange where least resistance to flow
                                              1. 'Water' and environmental controls
                                          3. Freshwater resources
                                            1. We rely on the smallest stores in the hydrological cycle
                                              1. Fastest rates of turnover
                                                1. Greatest short-term fluctuations in supply
                                                2. Human impacts
                                                  1. Irrigated soils and reservoirs each hold more freshwater than all the world's rivers
                                                    1. However turnover rate in rivers is higher
                                              2. Global water cycle processes and patterns
                                                1. Precipitation
                                                  1. Key controls on global precipitation
                                                    1. Atmospheric circulation
                                                      1. Driven by solar heating
                                                        1. Hadley Cells and Intertropical Convergence Zone with return flow to equator off-set by Earth's rotation (trade winds)
                                                          1. Jet streams between cells: west to east
                                                            1. Energy (and moisture) transfer
                                                              1. Between 30deg N and 30deg S - Hadley Cells
                                                                1. Higher latitudes - cyclones and anti-cyclones, frontal systems
                                                                2. Two main peaks in precipitation at zones of convergence
                                                                  1. Atmospheric circulation also exerts an influence on oceanic circulation
                                                                  2. Oceanic circulation
                                                                    1. Largest source of water
                                                                      1. Main reclamation and recycling plant
                                                                        1. Major heat store
                                                                          1. Major convyor belt for heat (energy)
                                                                            1. Oceanic controls on precipitation
                                                                              1. Surface oceanic currents
                                                                                1. Surface currents mirror atmospheric circulation leading to poleward transfer of heat from equator (wind drag)
                                                                                  1. Affect regional evaporation and precipitation patterns (e.g. west-coast deserts)
                                                                                    1. Note role of landmasses
                                                                                      1. Wind can also influence upwelling dynamics
                                                                                      2. Deep ocean currents
                                                                                        1. Thermohaline circulation
                                                                                          1. Transfers heat from Indian ocean to North Atlantic
                                                                                          2. Driven by evaporation in Northern Atlantic
                                                                                            1. Increased density linked to cooling and increased salinity
                                                                                              1. Water sinks and returns south
                                                                                              2. Main effect is heat transfer
                                                                                              3. Oceanic upwelling events
                                                                                                1. Driven by surface drag and/or density currents
                                                                                                  1. Noteable effect on sea surface temperatures
                                                                                                    1. Impacts on regional precipitation patterns
                                                                                                    2. El Nino Southern Oscillation
                                                                                                      1. Warm waters from western equatorial Pacific invade eastern part due to weakening of Trade Winds
                                                                                                        1. Disrupts upwelling of cold waters along the western coast of South America
                                                                                                          1. Heavy precipitation coastal Ecuador and Peru
                                                                                                            1. Dought in eastern Australia, southern India and southern Africa
                                                                                                              1. Wider global impacts
                                                                                                            2. Avg 5 yr circulation
                                                                                                      2. Land mass
                                                                                                        1. Orographic Precipitation
                                                                                                          1. Air forced to rise and cool over areas of high relief
                                                                                                            1. Mostly causes repeated precipitation in same location
                                                                                                            2. Mechanisms
                                                                                                              1. Trigger instability by upwards motion or differential heating
                                                                                                                1. Increase cyclonic precipitation by stalling it (esp mid-late winter)
                                                                                                                  1. Force convergence through valleys
                                                                                                                2. Global patterns
                                                                                                                3. Seasonal wind patterns
                                                                                                                  1. Monsoons: seasonal reversals in wind patterns
                                                                                                                    1. Linked to migration of Intertropical Convergence
                                                                                                                      1. Wet and dry conditions
                                                                                                                      2. Storm systems
                                                                                                                        1. Hurricanes/typhoons
                                                                                                                          1. Individuals convections cells form over warm seas
                                                                                                                            1. 200-500 mm rain/day
                                                                                                                            2. Typically western ocean zones away from equator where:
                                                                                                                              1. 1. Free convection release enough latent heat by condensation
                                                                                                                                1. 2. Sufficient Coriolis force to cause rotation
                                                                                                                                  1. 3. Warm ocean currents move system to higher latitude and greater coriolis force
                                                                                                                                  2. Lower latitudes: coriolis force weaker, trade winds break up convective cloud growth
                                                                                                                                    1. Mid-latitude
                                                                                                                                      1. Frontal storms: Main source of rain in mid-latitudes
                                                                                                                                        1. Convective cells: local air 10% warmer than surrounding air
                                                                                                                                    2. Change in precipitation
                                                                                                                                      1. Global Only 1% change - not significant
                                                                                                                                        1. NW Africa > -40%
                                                                                                                                      2. Evaporation
                                                                                                                                        1. Described by Dalton's Law
                                                                                                                                          1. E = u (es - ea)
                                                                                                                                            1. u = function of windspeed
                                                                                                                                              1. es = saturation pressure at temp
                                                                                                                                                1. ea = current vapour pressure
                                                                                                                                              2. Global patterns
                                                                                                                                                1. Ocean
                                                                                                                                                  1. Generally greatest at low latitudes and where sea temperature is warm
                                                                                                                                                    1. Equatorial cloud cover leads to slight reduction
                                                                                                                                                      1. Eastern margins of many oceans reduced due to upwelling
                                                                                                                                                        1. Notable exceptions e.g. El Nino Southern Oscillation
                                                                                                                                                      2. Land
                                                                                                                                                        1. More complex
                                                                                                                                                    2. Runoff
                                                                                                                                                      1. Estimating global runoff
                                                                                                                                                        1. Estimates of global runoff ideally based on well-established gauging stations on major rivers
                                                                                                                                                          1. Record coverage, length and incompleteness are major hurdles
                                                                                                                                                            1. Data not available for up to 1/3 of river basins
                                                                                                                                                              1. Some tropical areas not covered i.e. where precipitation and runoff are high
                                                                                                                                                                1. Alternative is the climatological method
                                                                                                                                                                  1. RO = P - E
                                                                                                                                                                    1. RO = Runoff
                                                                                                                                                                      1. P = Precipitation
                                                                                                                                                                        1. E = Evaporation
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Change in flow
                                                                                                                                                                      1. 1951-2000 - Global 0.4% change - not significant
                                                                                                                                                                        1. 1951 - 2000 regional
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Semi-arid - > -30%
                                                                                                                                                                            1. No significant change in Europe
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Change in some areas highly variable in rivers
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Climate and human factors
                                                                                                                                                                          1. R = P - (ET + S + C)
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Change in runoff over the study period would be expected to match change in precipitation
                                                                                                                                                                              1. If it doesn't, then here must be a change in evapotranspiration, storage or consumption
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Authors found that study rivers fitted one of three classes
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Normal
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Deficit
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Excess

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