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1643074
GGP101 Hydrology 2
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A-level University Mapa Mental sobre GGP101 Hydrology 2, criado por RoryFlynn2 em 14-11-2014.
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GGP101 Hydrology 2
Global water cycle functions and stores
Key Functions
Supplies freshwater
Drives primary biological production
Regulates climate
Greenhouse effect
Transports heat
Stores (4 main types)
Ocean
Terrestrial waters
Ice
Atmosphere
Storage measured in 10^3 km^3
Flux within stores
Flux from ocean to land is most important for terrestrial water resources
Flux from land to ocean is theoretically equal to difference in Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
Flux measured in 10^3 km^3yr^-1
Turnover within stores
Main control on turnover within stores is surface area : volume ratio
Exchange between stores
Surace to volume ratio
Energy available
Incoming energy
Radioactive and thermal properties of surface
Efficiency of energy use
Liquid to gas more efficient than solid to liquid/gas
Ease of exchange
Most exchange where least resistance to flow
'Water' and environmental controls
Freshwater resources
We rely on the smallest stores in the hydrological cycle
Fastest rates of turnover
Greatest short-term fluctuations in supply
Human impacts
Irrigated soils and reservoirs each hold more freshwater than all the world's rivers
However turnover rate in rivers is higher
Global water cycle processes and patterns
Precipitation
Key controls on global precipitation
Atmospheric circulation
Driven by solar heating
Hadley Cells and Intertropical Convergence Zone with return flow to equator off-set by Earth's rotation (trade winds)
Jet streams between cells: west to east
Energy (and moisture) transfer
Between 30deg N and 30deg S - Hadley Cells
Higher latitudes - cyclones and anti-cyclones, frontal systems
Two main peaks in precipitation at zones of convergence
Atmospheric circulation also exerts an influence on oceanic circulation
Oceanic circulation
Largest source of water
Main reclamation and recycling plant
Major heat store
Major convyor belt for heat (energy)
Oceanic controls on precipitation
Surface oceanic currents
Surface currents mirror atmospheric circulation leading to poleward transfer of heat from equator (wind drag)
Affect regional evaporation and precipitation patterns (e.g. west-coast deserts)
Note role of landmasses
Wind can also influence upwelling dynamics
Deep ocean currents
Thermohaline circulation
Transfers heat from Indian ocean to North Atlantic
Driven by evaporation in Northern Atlantic
Increased density linked to cooling and increased salinity
Water sinks and returns south
Main effect is heat transfer
Oceanic upwelling events
Driven by surface drag and/or density currents
Noteable effect on sea surface temperatures
Impacts on regional precipitation patterns
El Nino Southern Oscillation
Warm waters from western equatorial Pacific invade eastern part due to weakening of Trade Winds
Disrupts upwelling of cold waters along the western coast of South America
Heavy precipitation coastal Ecuador and Peru
Dought in eastern Australia, southern India and southern Africa
Wider global impacts
Avg 5 yr circulation
Land mass
Orographic Precipitation
Air forced to rise and cool over areas of high relief
Mostly causes repeated precipitation in same location
Mechanisms
Trigger instability by upwards motion or differential heating
Increase cyclonic precipitation by stalling it (esp mid-late winter)
Force convergence through valleys
Global patterns
Seasonal wind patterns
Monsoons: seasonal reversals in wind patterns
Linked to migration of Intertropical Convergence
Wet and dry conditions
Storm systems
Hurricanes/typhoons
Individuals convections cells form over warm seas
200-500 mm rain/day
Typically western ocean zones away from equator where:
1. Free convection release enough latent heat by condensation
2. Sufficient Coriolis force to cause rotation
3. Warm ocean currents move system to higher latitude and greater coriolis force
Lower latitudes: coriolis force weaker, trade winds break up convective cloud growth
Mid-latitude
Frontal storms: Main source of rain in mid-latitudes
Convective cells: local air 10% warmer than surrounding air
Change in precipitation
Global Only 1% change - not significant
NW Africa > -40%
Evaporation
Described by Dalton's Law
E = u (es - ea)
u = function of windspeed
es = saturation pressure at temp
ea = current vapour pressure
Global patterns
Ocean
Generally greatest at low latitudes and where sea temperature is warm
Equatorial cloud cover leads to slight reduction
Eastern margins of many oceans reduced due to upwelling
Notable exceptions e.g. El Nino Southern Oscillation
Land
More complex
Runoff
Estimating global runoff
Estimates of global runoff ideally based on well-established gauging stations on major rivers
Record coverage, length and incompleteness are major hurdles
Data not available for up to 1/3 of river basins
Some tropical areas not covered i.e. where precipitation and runoff are high
Alternative is the climatological method
RO = P - E
RO = Runoff
P = Precipitation
E = Evaporation
Change in flow
1951-2000 - Global 0.4% change - not significant
1951 - 2000 regional
Semi-arid - > -30%
No significant change in Europe
Change in some areas highly variable in rivers
Climate and human factors
R = P - (ET + S + C)
Change in runoff over the study period would be expected to match change in precipitation
If it doesn't, then here must be a change in evapotranspiration, storage or consumption
Authors found that study rivers fitted one of three classes
Normal
Deficit
Excess
Anexos de mídia
Hydrological_cycle (image/png)
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