The Biological Approach

the assumptions
1. assumption 1: evolutionary influences
  1. To evolve means to change with time
    1. In psychology the theory of evolution has been used to explain how the human mind and behaviour have changed over millions of years so that they are adapted to the demands of our individual environments
  2. Theory of natural selection
    1. based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection, this is the idea that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s chance of survival and reproduction will be naturally selected
    2. Natural selection takes place at the level of genes. An example of this is altruistic behaviour where parents risk their life to save their offspring.
      1. The theory of natural selection says that altruism is an inherited adaptive trait because saving an offspring or relative enhances the survival of the gene pool.
  3. Environment of evolutionary adaptiveness (EEA)
    1. This is the environment to which any species is adapted and the selective pressures that existed at that time.
    2. Evolutionary psychologists don’t assume all forms of behaviour are adaptive – only the ones that will ensure the survival in that individual’s particular environment.
    3. genes for survival behaviours are the ones that are passed on
      1. most recent period of evolutionary change was about 2 million years ago when humans moved from forest life to savannahs in Africa
        A theory on human brain size would propose that the brain has evolved in response to the complex social organisation of our species. Those humans with particular abilities would be more likely to survive
2. assumption 2: localisation of brain function
  1. certain areas of the brain are responsible for different functions – they have certain jobs or tasks to carry out
  2. The cerebral cortex covers the brain and is the area of the brain responsible for higher order cognitive functions
  3. Four Lobes:The cerebral cortex is divided into four regions: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each of the four regions or ‘lobes’ has specific functions.
    1. The frontal lobes are involved in thinking and creativity and have been linked to our personality.
    2. The parietal lobes receive sensory information such as temperature, touch and pain
    3. The temporal lobes are responsible for much of our memory processing as well and the processing of auditory information
    4. The occipital lobes are concerned with visual processing and receive information directly from the eyes
  4. localisation of language
    1. French neurosurgery Paul Broca studied 8 patients with language problems. in the mid 19th century
      1. examined their brains after death and found that they had damage to a specific area of their left hemispheres.
        This area was named Broca’s area (posterior portion of the frontal lobe) and is associated with speech production
    2. There are specific areas of the brain linked to the processing of language.
    3. Carl Wernicke, German neurologist, discovered another area of the brain involved in understanding language.
      1. named Wernicke’s area it is in the posterior portion of the left temporal lobe. His patients could speak but were unable to understand language
3. Assumption 3: neurotransmitters
  1. Neurons are electrically excitable cells that form the basis of the nervous system.
  2. The flexibility of the nervous system is enhanced by having many branches as the end of each neuron (called dendrites) so that each neuron connects with many others.
  3. neurons communicate with each other at a synapse, where the message is relayed by chemical messengers
    1. neurotransmitters are released from presynaptic vesicles and will either stimulate receptors in the other neuron. The synaptic cleft or gap is about 20nm wide
  4. Neurotransmitters have been found to play a significant role in our mental health.
    1. Too little serotonin has been found in people suffering from depression. Some antidepressant medication therefore works by increasing the availability of serotonin at the postsynaptic receptor sites
    2. High levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine have been associated with symptoms of schizophrenia. This is supported by the fact that drugs that block dopamine activity reduce schizophrenia symptoms.
4. relationship formation
  1. Evolutionary theory proposes that relationships form with individuals who possess certain traits. Traits that enhance successful reproduction are naturally selected
    1. males and females experience different selective pressures.
      1. Females also seek signs of fertility and healthiness in their partner, but are more concerned to find a partner who can provide he resources needed for offspring to survive
      2. Males so well to mate as frequently as they can and select women who are more fertile and healthier
    2. parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972): According to parental investment theory, as female mammals invest more in their offspring (e.g. they carry the baby), they must be ‘choosier’ in finding a partner and hence will seek out the male that can provide the most.
  2. The chemicals in out brain have powerful effects on our emotions, and in turn will influence our perceptions of others including those we may enter relationships with.
    1. Dopamine has been associated with pleasure seeking and reward driven behaviour, so setting the goal of finding a partner and being driven to achieve this will give us a hit of dopamine
      1. This can explain why we are driven to form relationships as humans as it gives us a natural high.
        Oxytocin is a hormone linked to human bonding and increasing trust and loyalty, and high levels of oxytocin have been linked to romantic attachment
        it is thought that a lack of physical contact with one’s partner will reduce levels of oxytocin, leading to feelings of longing to bond with ones partner again
        acts as another explaination for relationship formation as we have a natural chemical drive to bind with others.
  3. Evolutionary theory can also explain the close relationship often found between brothers and sisters
    1. there is also kin selection – traits that enhance the survival of those who have similar genes are also selected to promote the survival of our group’s gens
      1. we have a natural incentive to look after our siblings, and to invest time, energy and other resources into ensuring they are protected and healthy
  4. therapy:drug therapy
    1. The approach to therapy is known as the medical model ; it has the view that mental illnesses are like physical illnesses and that a patient should treat their mental health through direct manipulation of their psychical bodies’ processes
      1. A econd assumption is that the brain’s neurotransmitter systems will affect our mood, feelings, perception and behaviour; suggested psychotherapeutic drugs can be used to alter the actions for neurotransmitters and treat medical disorder
        A third assumption is that drugs target specific regions of the brain (localisation of brain functions) which are involved in psychological disorder
        drug therapy operates by increasing or blocking the action of neurotransmitters in the brain to influence our emotions, thoughts and actions.
        The three main types of psychoactive drugs are antipsychotics; antidepressants and antianxiety drugs.
        antipsychotics
        Treat psychotic mental disorders such as schizophrenia.
        Conventional antipsychotics are used primarily to combat the positive symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g. delusions and hallucination)
        These drugs block the action of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain by binding to but not stimulating dopamine receptors.
        The atypical antipsychotic (i.e. Clozaril) act by only temporarily occupying dopamine receptors, and then rapidly dissociating to allow normal dopamine transmission
        This may explain why such atypical antipsychotics have lower levels of side effects compared with conventional antipsychotics.
        A patient with a psychotic mental disorder has lost touch with reality and has little insight into his or her condition
        antidepressants
        Depression is thought to be due to insufficient amounts if neurotransmitters such as serotonin being produced in the nerve endings
        To terminate their action, neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the nerve endings and are broken down by an enzyme. Antidepressants work either by reducing the rate of reabsorption, or by blocking the enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitters.
        Both of these mechanisms increase the amount of neurotransmitters available to excite neighbouring cells.
        The most commonly prescribed antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as Prozac. These work by blocking the transporter mechanism that reabsorbs serotonin into the presynaptic cell after it has fired.
        As a result, more serotonin is left in the synapse, prolonging its activity and making transmission to the next impulse easier.
        anti anxiety
        The group of drugs most commonly used to treat anxiety and stress are benzodiazepines (BZs).
        They are sold under various trade names such as Librium and Valium.
        BZs slow down the activity of the central nervous system. They do this by enhancing the activity of GABA, a biochemical substance that is the body’s natural anxiety relief.
        Beta-Blockers (BBs) are also used to reduce anxiety. They reduce the activity of adrenaline and noradrenaline, which are part of the response to stress.
        BBs bind to receptors on the cells of the heart and other parts of the body which are stimulated during sympathetic arousal.
        By blocking these receptors, it is harder to stimulate cells in this part of the body, so the heart beats slower and with less force, and blood vessels do not contact so easily
        This results in a fall in blood pressure, and therefore less stress on the heart leaving the person feeling calmer and less anxious
    2. effectiveness
      1. drugs versus placebo
        There is considerable evidence for the effectiveness of drug treatments. Typically, a randomised control trial is used to compare the effectiveness of the drug versus a placebo.
        Soomro et al 2008 reviewed 17 studies of the use of SSRIs with OCD patients and found them to be more effective than placebos in reducing symptoms of OCD up to 3 months after treatment (in the short term).
        Kahn et al 1986 followed 250 patients over 8 weeks and found BZs to be significantly superior to placebos.
        However, one of the issues regarding evaluation of treatment is that they only normally last 3-4 months and so there is only a small amount of long-term data, Koran et al 2007 criticised the short-term data.
        side effects
        While drugs are generally effective in treating psychological disorders, many have serious side effects.
        For example: nausea, headaches and insomnia are common side effects of SSRIs (Soomro et al 2008). These may not seems terrible but are often reasons for people not to take the drug.
        Tricyclic antidepressants tend to have more side effects- hallucinations and irregular heartbeat are common- than SSRIs so they are more likely to be used in cases where SSRIs were not effective.
        symptoms not cause
        drug therapy is that whilst drugs may be effective in treating symptoms of psychological disorders, this type of therapy does not address the underlying cause.
        This will lead to what is known as the ‘revolving door syndrome’ where a patient is back and forth to their doctor as they are never really cured
        comparison with other treatments
        Relative to other treatments (e.g. psychotherapy) drug therapy is cheap for the patient – in the UK they would be prescribed their drugs on the NHS.
        The practitioner has to invest less time on the patient because they only need to meet with the patient every couple of months after the initial consultation.
        Therefore, this type of therapy is effective and easy to administer compared to other forms of therapy.
    3. ethical issues
      1. use of placebos
        a fundamental research ethic is that no patient should be given a treatment known to be inferior
        If effective treatments exist, they should be used as the control condition when new treatments are tested.
        Substituting a placebo for an effective treatment does not satisfy this duty as it exposes individuals to a treatment known to be inferior.
        patient information
        Another ethical problem is the issues of valid consent or lack of it.
        Many patients will find it difficult to remember all the facts relating to potential side effects of the drug prescribed or they simply may not be in a frame of mind to digest this information
        Therefore, valid consent is seen as an illusion.
        Furthermore, medical professionals may withhold some information about the drugs and for example may not explain the pharmacological benefits of the drug are slim.
        Some medical professionals may also exaggerate the benefits of taking medication and may fail to inform the patient of the other therapeutic options due to the ‘quick fix’ nature of drug therapy.
    4. Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse 1997
      1. Early therapies suggested that there might be a physical difference between criminals (C) and non-criminals (NC).
        This would enable us to identify individuals before they committed a crime.
        Cesare Lombroso 1876 suggested that criminals typically had a narrow, sloping forehead, prominent eye ridges, large ears and a protruding chin.
      2. brain scanning techniques opened a new way to research to research the differences between C and NC
        it was thought that regions of the brain were responsible for C; animal research and studies of people with brain damage gave clus to which regions to look at.
        they focused on one particular group of C's – people who had committed a murder and entered a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)
      3. The researchers proposed, on the basis of previous research that seriously violent individuals:
        - Would have brain dysfunction in the: prefrontal cortex, angular gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus and corpus callosum
        - Would not have brain dysfunction in the areas of the brain that have been implicated in mental illnesses but not previously related to violence: caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, midbrain, cerebellum
      4. methodology
        This was a quasi-experiment with match pair designs. The IV is NGRI or not, the DV is brain differences.
        Murders (experimental group):
        41 murderers, 39 men 2 women
        average age of 34.3 years
        all been charged with murder or manslaughter and all of them pleaded NGRI or incompetence to stand trial
        referred to the University of California for explanation to obtain proof of their diminished capacity
        the murderers had some form of mental impairment
        Mental disorder;Number: Schizophrenia;6- History of head injury or organic brain injury;23- History of psychoactive drug abuse;3- Affective disorder;2- Epilepsy;2- History of hyperactivity and learning disability;3- Personality disorder;2
        participants were instructed to be medication free and were checked with urine scans for 2 weeks prior to brain scanning
        Control group
        formed by matching each murdered with a normal individual of the same sex and age
        The 6 schizophrenics were matched with 6 schizophrenics from a mental hospital
        The other controls had no history of psychiatric illness, nor was there a history of psychiatric illness in any close relatives and no significant physical illness
        None were taking medication.
        procedures
        The sample was obtained using opportunity sampling. A PET scan was used to study the active brain.
        The article provides precise details of the scanning techniques so that the study could be replicated.
        All participants were given an injection of a ‘tracer’ (fluorodeoxyglucose FDG)
        This tracer is taken up by active areas of the brain and thus it was possible to compare the brains of the NGRI and control groups.
        they were all asked to do a continuous performance task (CPT) aimed to activate the target areas of the brain so the investigators could see how the different areas functioned.
        1. participants were given a chance to practise the CPT before receiving the FDG injection
        2. 30 seconds before the FDG injection participants started the CPT so that the initial task novelty wouldn’t be FDG labelled.
        3. 32 minutes after the FDG injection a PET scan was done with each participant. 10 horizontal slices (pictures) of their brain were recorded using the cortical peel and box techniques.
        findings
        The study found reduced activity in the brain of NGRI participants in areas previously linked to violence
        - prefrontal cortex
        - Left angular gyrus
        - Corpus callosum
        - In the left hemisphere only there was reduced activity in the amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus
        The study found increased activity in the brain of NGRI participants in areas not previously linked to violence:
        - Cerebellum
        - In the right hemisphere there was increased activity in the amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus
        The study found no difference between NGRI group and controls in areas not previously linked to violence:
        - Caudate
        - Putamen
        - Globus pallidus
        - Midbrain
        summary: murderers had->
        - Reduced activity in some areas, notably areas previously linked to violence, eg reduced glucose metabolism
        - Abnormal asymmetries – reduced activity on left side of the brain, greater activity on the right. Applied to some areas identified in the hypothesis as being linked to violence (amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus)
        - No differences in many brain structures, notably structures associated with mental illness but not violence
        Both groups performed similarly on the CPT. Therefore any observed brain differences were not related to task performance.
        Some differences between the NGRI group and control group noted:
        - Handedness: six of the murdered were left handed but in fact they had less amygdala asymmetry and higher medical prefrontal activity than right handed murders
        - Ethnicity: 14 of the murderers were non-white but a comparison between them and white murderers showed no significant difference in brain activity
        - Head injury: 23 of the murderers had a history of head injury but they didn’t differ from those without a head injury
        Conclusion
        the findings provide preliminary evidence that murderers pleading NGRI have different brain functioning to normal individuals.
        However, neural processes underlying violence are complex and can’t be reduced to a single brain mechanism.
        Violent behaviour can probably best be explained by the disruption of a network of interacting brain mechanisms rather than any single structure
        Such disruption would not cause violent behaviour but would predispose an individual to violent behaviour
        Confounding variables:
        The study was carefully designed, involving a large sample and matched controls. However, Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse acknowledge that head injury and IQ have not been ruled out as contributary factors.
        Warning
        1. the results do not show that violent behaviour is determined by biology alone
        2. the results do not show that murderers pleading NGRI are not responsible for their actions, nor that PET can be used as a means of diagnosing violent individuals
        3. the results do no show that brain dysfunction causes violence. It may be that brain dysfunction is an effect of violence
        4. the results do not show that violence can be explained by the results, the results relate only to criminal behaviour
        Nevertheless the findings do suggest a link between brain dysfunction and a predisposition towards violence in this specific group (NGRI murderers) which should be further investigated.
        see table in book for links between areas of the brain and aggression
      5. Continued
        Evaluation
        A quasi-experiment-
        the IV in this study (criminal status) was an existing condition of the individual, not something that was manipulated by the experimenter
        it is a quasi-experiment and casual conclusions are not justified
        the limitation of this method is that no casual conclusions can be drawn
        danger is that readers misinterpret the findings and assume that criminal behaviour is predetermined and inescapable.
        the findings do not show that violent behaviour is determined by biology alone, RBC suggest that psychological, cultural and situational factors play important roles in predisposition to violence.
        research techniques
        Data was collected in this study using PET scans: allows detailed study of the brain
        not possible until recently. In the past, researchers relied on post-mortem examinations
        enable the brain in action to be examined
        the sample
        findings do not show that all violent offenders have such brain dysfunctions
        the crime is one of murder and many violent crimes do not involve murder
        conclusions are restricted to a very particular group of people
        alternative evidence
        Adrian Raine continued to conduct research on the association between criminal behaviour and brain dysfunction
        a study by Yang and Raine 2009 was a meta-analysis of 43 imaging studies that considered both antisocial and violent behaviour.
        conclusions was that there is significantly reduced prefrontal activity in antisocial and/or violent individuals.
        genetic studies indicate a ‘criminal gene’. One candidate for this MAOA gene (monoamine oxidase A) that causes abnormally high levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
        Tilhonen et al 2015 analysed genes of 895 Finnish prisoners and found an association between this gene and an increased likelihood of committing a violent crime.
        genes are only predisposing factors
        neuroscientist , James Fallon, analysed his own genes and found that he had the genetic and brain characteristics of a violent criminal but wasn’t actually one
        suggested that his positive experiences during childhood meant that his potentially criminal tendencies were not triggered
        diathesis-stress explanation (a genetic predisposition which is only manifested if certain stressors trigger it – i.e. a difficult childhood)
        Ethical issues and social implications
        Valid consent
        main group of participants were murderers who pleaded NGRI
        suggests that they may not have been mentally competent to provide valid consent
        participants may not have fully understood what they would be required to do.
        E.g. they may have found the performance task difficult and potentially lowered their self-esteem – psychological harm
        The murderers may have also not understood their right to withdraw at any time
        - may have felt forced to see the study through.
        socially sensitive research
        ethical issues is the broader social implications of this research .
        Socially sensitive research refers to any research that has consequences for the larger group of which participants are members
        With research on murderers the question is whether our understanding of criminal behaviour is advanced by the research
        If it indicated murderers are born nor made this would be disadvantageous for people with similar abnormalities- may be imprisoned without trial
        Thus the research findings have implications for thr prisoners.
        Means that important decisions have to be made about the way it is conducted and reported.
        Contemporary debate: is neuroscience ethical?
        for
        understand consciousness
        Francis Crick and Christof Koch 1998 propose that the claustrum, a thin sheet of neurons found in the centre of the brain, is the seat of the consciousness.
        54 year old woman support his – she suffered from severe epilepsy and during some tests on her brain and electrode placed near the claustrum was electrically stimulated.
        The women stopped reading, stared blankly and didn’t respond to visual or auditory commands, when the stimulation stopped, she regained consciousness immediately with no recollection of the event
        repeated by Koubeissi et al 2014 who found the same results.
        This could help us make decisions about patients who are in a persistent vegetative state and the decision to end their life could be based on their consciousness.
        treat criminal behaviour
        Cherek et al 2002 investigated the levels of impulsivity and aggression in males with a history of conduct disorder and criminal behaviour
        Half received a placebo for 21 days and the others were given paroxetine (SSRI antidepressant)
        Those who had paroxetine showed a significant decrease in impulsive responses, and aggressions declined by the end of the study.
        Offers pharmacological treatments to criminals could reduce recidivism and make society safer for all.
        enhance neurological function
        Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) involves passing a small electric current across specific regions in the brain.
        Cohen Kadosh et al 2012 found that TDCS leads to improvements in problem-solving and mathematical, language, memory and attention capabilities.
        Students could use TDCS in preparation for exams.
        Marketing techniques
        When interviewed by market researchers we may not give our true opinions in order to appear better- social desirability
        This can be avoided using eye tracking equipment which provides objective evidence. EEG can also be used.
        Sands research used and EEG to produce ‘The Force’ advert for Volkswagen, it upped traffic on the VW website by half and contributed to the success of the brand.
        against
        understand consciousness
        The implications are unlimited.
        Moral question – if someone does not have consciousness should you be able to kill them (vegetative state).
        Questions the soundness of the evidence as it is drawn from a case study of one ‘abnormal’ brain.
        treat criminal behaviour
        many see criminal behaviour as a response to social factors.
        Even if there is a neurological basis there is a question of whether it is acceptable to include mandatory neurological interventions.
        Martha Farah 2004 argues that if courts use neurological interventions, it signals the denial of the individual’s freedom, something not previously denied
        Furthermore, a court may offer a convicted criminal the choice of a prison sentence or medication, introduces an ethical issue of implicit coercion
        enhance neurological function
        Cohen Kadosh et al 2012 warn of ethical implication to TDCS tech.
        No training or licencing rules for practitioners – could lead to poorly qualified clinicians administering treatments, potential brain damage
        Although comparatively cheap, TDCS is not available to everyone;not fair to allow some benefit and not all
        effects on developing brains.
        marketing techniques
        Wilson et al 2008 believe commercial integration of neuromarketing research will allow advertisers to deliver individualised messages where our free will is potentially manipulated by big brands.
        not obliged to abide by ethical codes of practice
        Nelson 2008 found that 5% of brain scans recorded by marketing firms produced incidental findings such as evidence of brain tumours or problems with brain function. As they are not board certified they are not obliged to follow ethical protocols such as advising them of the findings.
        Evaluation
        Scientific approach
        Believe that behaviour can be explained in terms of the brain, neurotransmitters and localisation of brain function.
        Means that biological explanations have clear variable to measure, track and examine.
        Enables scientific research to be conducted.
        E.g. research on drug therapy investigated the links of behaviour and between drugs and production of neurotransmitters
        E.g.Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse used PET scans which is a form of scientific research
        Determinist approach
        If we know what predetermines our behaviour then it is easier to treat issues.
        E.g. want to understand neurotransmitters so that they can see if someone has issues/ solve issues
        Use of scientific research shows that dopamine plays apart in schizophrenia – determinist because it limits it to just dopamine effects not the environment etc
        Brain scans are used to identify active areas of the brain – can use this to identify areas of the brain that are over/under active.
        If we can figure out what causes issues in (all) people than we can help to solve issues for (all) people
        Successful applications
        Given us solutions/ help with mental disorders, allows people to live more regular lives and ‘fit’ in society
        Cherek et al 2002 showed males with conduct disorder and criminal behaviour had reduced levels of aggression and impulsivity after a 21 day course of an anti-depressant compared to a control group taking placebos.
        Drug therapy had mixed results because drugs affect people differently but it does help many people with mental health disorders – bipolar disorder has been treated with drugs,
        Viguera et al 2000 reported that >60% of bipolar patients improved after taking lithium
        Reductionist approach
        Reducing stress to just adrenaline can ignore other causes for e.g. It is part of understanding how things work but in the process it is easy to lose a real understanding of the thing being investigated.
        The approach suggests that schizophrenia is basically a complex physical chemical system that has gone wrong
        R.D. Laing 1965 claimed the approach ignored the experience of distress that goes with mental illnesses and is therefore incomplete
        Nature over nurture
        Only focuses on the nature aspect of mental illness and often ignores life experience and how people think/feel.
        Doesn’t look at how people feel about their illness but is just concerned with the abnormal levels of neurotransmitters.
        In terms of treatment it doesn’t look at feelings just body make up
        Individual differences (nomothetic)
        Looks to make generalisations about people and ignored peoples differences.
        e.g. when stresses some people produce more adrenaline than others which affects the long-term effects often focuses on just a few individuals and assumes everyone is the same as them.
        Tend to use males more than females because female cycles effect hormones – another difference, male bias
        Taylor et al 2000 suggests men usually react to stress with a fight or flight response but women ten to show a tend and befriend response.
        This is seen across various species where the female will protect and nurture their young and seek social contact and support from other females – attributed to the hormone oxytocin which women produce when stressed
there are sevreal strands to the biological approach: physiological approach, nativist approach and medical model
1. physiological: believes that all behaviour is due to the functioning of internal body parts i.e. the brain/ hormones
2. nativist: assumes that all behaviour is inherited and passed down through our genes from generation to generation
3. medical model: refers to the treatment of physiological disorders based on the same principles used to treat physical disease; argument is based on psychological problems being caused by physical things and having a physical treatment (medical)

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	Criado por Nicole Stanley quase 6 anos atrás

	Copiado por Nicole Stanley quase 6 anos atrás