Learning

Learning

Definitions
1. Learning
  1. Observational Learning
    1. Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experiences of others
      1. Children imitate parents, teachers
    2. Mirror Neurons
      1. Neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action.
        Italian researchers working with monkeys watch as neurons were activated when the monkeys made certain hand movements. Surprisingly, the same neurons were also activate when they observed the experimenter
  2. Any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience
2. Conditioning
  1. Involves learning connections between events that occur in an organism's environment
3. Generalization
  1. Responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established CS
    1. John Watson presented a white rat paired with a loud noise, which caused Little Albert to become afraid. His fear generalizes to white furry objects
4. Discrimination
  1. Responding differently to a new stimulus than one responds to established CS
    1. When stimuli share properties, like two tones of the same pitch, people often need to learn to discriminate
Conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning
  1. Pavlov
    1. Higher Order Conditioning
      1. After a conditioned stimulus reliably elicits a response, this conditioned stimulus can be paired with another stimuli which also elicits the same response
    2. Key Elements
      1. Acquisition
        Extinction
        Stimulus
        Generalisation
        Stimulus discrimination
        Spontaneous Recovery
  2. Phobias
    1. Irrational fears of specific objects or situations
      1. Fear of heights, becoming dizzy while in a high place and associating high places with instability
  3. Physiological Processes
    1. Classical conditioning can lead to immunosuppression - a decrease in the production of antibodies
      1. Animals were injected with a drug (US) that chemically causes immune suppression and also gave them an unusual tasting drink. Later they gave animals only the drink and when they measured antibody production, it decreased. The drug was paired with the drink which then cause immune suppression without the drug even being administered
  4. Acquisition
    1. Acquiring the new behaviour. Usually something novel, unusual or very intense that results in classical conditioning
      1. Timing is another factor. Stimulus contiguity - how close the stimuli are together
  5. Extinction
    1. Presenting CS repeatedly, after conditioning, without the US, resulting in no response.
  6. Spontaneous recovery
    1. Recovery of an extinguished CR after a period of nonexposure to the CS - Often the CR isn't as strong as it once was
  7. Refers to a type of learning in which stimulus gets the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by a physical natural stimulus
2. Operant Conditioning
  1. A form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences of their own voluntary actions
    1. Learning that studying leads to good exam grade
  2. Acquisition
    1. In operant conditioning, acquisition also refers to the initial stage of learning a new response.
  3. Shaping
    1. Occurs when rewards are given for behaviour that is closer and closer to the desired end result
  4. Extinction
    1. Response is no longer followed by a reinforce. When the reinforce is taken away, the subject often increases the behaviour. Then the behaviour decreases gradually
Punishment
1. Penalty
  1. Removal of priviledges
2. Consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again
  1. Time out - fun removed for misbehaviour
    1. Side Effects of Physical Punishment in Children : In adulthood, people may experience increased aggression, criminal behaviour, mental health problems, and child abuse.
Reinforcement
1. Positive Reinforcement
  1. Increase in responding is due to giving something good or rewarding
2. Negative reinforcement
  1. Increased responding is due to removing something bad ( aversive )
3. Types of schedules
  1. Rules that an experimenter uses to determine when particular responses will be reinforced
  2. Ratio Schedules
    1. Number of responses required for reinforcement stays the same
      1. Fixed-Ratio Schedules
    2. A certain number of responses required for reinforcement, but this number changes
      1. Variable-Ratio Schedules
  3. Interval Schedules
    1. Reinforcement delivered for first response after a fixed allotment of time
      1. Fixed-Interval
    2. Allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement changes
      1. Variable-Interval
4. Positive : something good is given
5. Negative : something bad is removed
Evolutionary Perspective on Learning
1. Instinctive drift occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning.
2. Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired, after only one trial and when the stimuli are not contiguous, suggesting that there is a biological mechanism occurring.
3. Some phobias are more easily conditioned than others, suggesting the concept of preparedness
  1. Biologically prepared to learn to fear objects or events that have inherent danger
Tolman
1. Latent learning
  1. Is a type of learning that isn't immediately expressed in an overt response
2. Conducted experiments involving rats running through mazes.
Bandura
1. Bobo Doll Experiment
  1. Study involved film of adult hitting "Bobo" doll
  2. Children acted out what they observed
  3. Adult was either praised or punished - more likely to follow if adult praised for aggression
2. Researcher who studied effects of viewing adult aggressive behaviour on children

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	Criado por Aiyana Reeves mais de 8 anos atrás