AS Psychology Unit 1 & 2 (Edexcel)

Anotações:

• The 4 areas of the Ethical Guidelines. Remember these for Ethical Discussion.

1. Respect
2. Competence
3. Integrity
4. Responsibilty

1. Interviews

   Anotações:

   • Know the difference between types of interviews. Difference between Question Types.
   1. Structured Interview

      Anotações:

      • Pre-set Order of Questions Quantitative Data
   2. Unstructured Interview

      Anotações:

      • Questions are open Interview Structure is flexible Qualitative data
   3. Semi-Structured Interview

      Anotações:

      • Schedule of questions Researcher has freedom to follow up on some responses.
   4. Open Question

      Anotações:

      • Qualitative data Consists of words Opinion-based
   5. Closed Question

      Anotações:

      • Limits possible responses Quantitative Data Reduced to numbers/quantities
2. Sampling
   1. Random

      Anotações:

      • Equal chance to be selected Unbiased Difficult in large numbers
   2. Stratified

      Anotações:

      • Break population into groups Very representative Time consuming Difficult
   3. Opportunity

      Anotações:

      • Whoever is available. Easy & Quick Not very representative
   4. Volunteer/Self Selecting

      Anotações:

      • Participants select themselves Access a wide variety of people Motivation may make behaviour different. May have 'special' qualities.
3. Evaluation
   1. Reliability
   2. Subjectivity
   3. Validity

Anotações:

• Following an order given by a person with RECOGNISED AUTHORITY over you.

1. Milgram (Shock Test) 1963

   Anotações:

   • Behavioural Study of Obedience to Malevolent Authority. The aim was to measure how obedient 'naive' participants would be when ordered to give intense electric shocks. 40 Volunteers Selected by advertising Not in College/High School Rigged draw made sure participant was always given the role of 'teacher' 'Teacher' gives shocks for every incorrect answer to the 'actor' 'Actor' goes silent after '315v' after complaining about pain/heart problems Measured by how far they went up the generator before refusing to go further.
   • Every participant went to at least 300v. 26 went all the way to 450v. Variations conducted include: Learner in the same room (40% went to the end) When teacher had to hold learners hand (30%)
2. Meeus and Raaijmakers (Interview Sabotage) 1985

   Anotações:

   • Administrative Obedience : Carrying Out Orders to use Psychological-Administrative Violence To test obedience where harm would be done Participants ordered to harass a job applicant to make him nervous while sitting a test. 92% of Participants obeyed Variatons involved removing researcher presence and having two rebellious peers. Obedience dropped HUGELY in both.
3. Agency Theory

   Anotações:

   • Human behaviour evolved to include the tendency to obey because rule-based behaviour enables stability in a complex human society.
   1. Autonomous

      Anotações:

      • Using our free will and take responsibility for our actions.
   2. Agentic

      Anotações:

      • Where we act on behalf on another
   3. Moral Strain

      Anotações:

      • Doing something that goes against our principles but seems to be for the greater good.
   4. Prejudice

      Anotações:

      • An attitude towards another person based on little or no knowledge.
      1. Discrimination

         Anotações:

         • Behaviour towards another person based on prejudice.
4. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1970)
   1. Social Categorisation

      Anotações:

      • The automatic act of putting yourself and others into groups along with stereotypical beliefs. In group - Groups you belong to Out group - Outside your in group
   2. Social Identification

      Anotações:

      • Absorbing the culture of your group Associate with your group's values and norms Differentiate between out groups
   3. Social Comparison

      Anotações:

      • To boost your own self-esteem, you need your group to appear 'better' by making other groups look bad in comparison.

1. Hofling et al. (Nurse Study) 1966

   Anotações:

   • Investigate aspects of the nurse-physician relationship. 3 hospitals. One as control. 12 nurses and 21 students nurses asked to fill a questionnaire.  Nurse is asked to give an overdose of a drug to a patient. Medication order given by phone. Drug is unauthorised. Unfamiliar voice.
   • Questionnaire: 10/12 nurses and 21/21 students said they would have given the medication. Experiment: 21/22 nurses started to give the medication. Nearly all said they shouldn't have.
2. Tajfel et al. (Fake Art) 1971

   Anotações:

   • Aim was to test whether grouping was enough to produce prejudice. Schoolboys split into two groups Klee & Kandinsky Asked to award poins to two other boys (one from each group) at a time. Boys typically awarded more points to members of their in group.
3. Sherif et al. (Robber's Cave) 1961

   Anotações:

   • 2 groups of Boys. Field study. Unaware of each others existence. When introduced, strong in group prejudice was shown. 

1. Lab Experiment
   1. Advantages

      Anotações:

      • Extraneous Variables can be controlled Can be certain the independent variable did have an effect on the measured dependent variable
   2. Disadvantages

      Anotações:

      • Artificial Environment May not apply to real situations Often aware of being part of research Experimenter Effects
2. Field Experiment
   1. Advantages

      Anotações:

      • Participants may not be aware of research Ecological Validity
   2. Disadvantages

      Anotações:

      • No control over setting More time-consuming Ethical Problems
3. Natural Experiment

   Anotações:

   • Field experiment but the independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher.
   1. Advantages

      Anotações:

      • Ecological Validity More ethical
   2. Disadvantages

      Anotações:

      • Lack of control over participants Extraneous Variables affecting results
4. Terminology
   1. Experimental Hypothesis

      Anotações:

      • Prediction of study outcome.
      1. One Tailed/Directional

         Anotações:

         • Direction of results can be predicted
      2. Two Tailed/Non - Directional

         Anotações:

         • A change or difference can be predicted, but not the direction.
   2. Null Hypothesis

      Anotações:

      • Statement that the results will be due to chance not to what was predicted.
   3. Variables
      1. Independent

         Anotações:

         • Manipulated or changed in order to demonstrate a difference between the experimental conditions.
      2. Dependent

         Anotações:

         • Variable that is measured or the result of the experiment.
      3. Extraneous

         Anotações:

         • Any variable, except the IV that can influence findings.
      4. Confounding

         Anotações:

         • A factor that has not been controlled and that has a direct impact on findings.
      5. Situational

         Anotações:

         • Things such as environment.
      6. Participants

         Anotações:

         • For example in a driving test one's driving skills gives them an advantage.
   4. Operationalisation

      Anotações:

      • Defining how you intend to measure the DV and alter conditions for the IV.
   5. Participant Design

      Anotações:

      • Describes how the participants are distributed.
      1. Independent Measures Design

         Anotações:

         • When one of the conditions is tested on a group
      2. Repeated Measures Design

         Anotações:

         • The same participants used in all experimental conditions
      3. Matched Pairs Design

         Anotações:

         • Same as IM design, but  all participants matched on a quality.
   6. Order Effects

      Anotações:

      • Occur when they're in all conditions of experiment. Become practiced at the test or becoming tired from the test.
      1. Counterbalancing

         Anotações:

         • Participants divided equally between conditions to experience them in different order.
      2. Randomising

         Anotações:

         • Purely random counterbalancing.
   7. Ecological Validity

      Anotações:

      • How well a study represents a natural situation
   8. Experimenter Effects

      Anotações:

      • Things that may influence the way a participant responds because of the experimenter.
   9. Demand Characteristics

      Anotações:

      • Changing behaviour due to knowledge of experiment

1. Craik and Lockhart (Processing) 1972

   Anotações:

   • Investigating how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall. Participants presented with 60 words answering 1 of  3 questions. 1 of each type of processing. They recalled more words that were semantically processed.
   1. Shallow Processing
      1. Structural Processing

         Anotações:

         • Using the physical qualities of something to encode it.
      2. Phonetic Processing

         Anotações:

         • Using sound to encode something
   2. Deep Processing
      1. Semantic Processing

         Anotações:

         • Encoding the meaning of a word relating to similar words.
      2. Elaboration Rehearsal

         Anotações:

         • Having a more meaningful analysis of information
   3. Rehearsal Types
2. Atknison and Shiffrin (Multi-Store Model) 1968
   1. Sensory Register

      Anotações:

      • Information enters, lasting around 2 seconds. If not attended to, lost immediately.
   2. Short Term Memory

      Anotações:

      • Lost if not rehearsed e.g Phone Number
   3. Long Term Memory

      Anotações:

      • Information is stored from STM. Lasts for years Infinite Storage
3. Baddeley and Hitch (Working Memory) 1974
   1. Phonological Loop

      Anotações:

      • Deals with verbal information. 'Inner voice'
   2. Primary Acoustic Store

      Anotações:

      • Holds acoustic information
   3. Visuo-spatial Scratchpad

      Anotações:

      • Deals with visual and spatial information
   4. Central Executive

      Anotações:

      • Directs the flow of information
4. Reconstructive Memory

   Anotações:

   • Using imagination and best guesses to complete the memory.

1. Cue Dependent Forgetting

   Anotações:

   • Failure to remember as an accessibility problem. If we don't remember it's because we're not in a similar situation.
   1. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenom

      Anotações:

      • Knowing the memory exists but being temporarily unable to recall it.
   2. Tulving's Specificity Principle

      Anotações:

      • The greater the similarity between the encoding event and retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original memory.
2. Context Dependent Forgetting

   Anotações:

   • Being in the same environment as a memory can aid recall of the memory
   1. Godden & Baddeley (Diver Study) 1975

      Anotações:

      • Were asked to recall words in a different environment (under water and on land). Without the same conditions, divers forgot the words.
   2. Grant and Bredahl et al. (Word Recall) 1998

      Anotações:

      • Memory for unrelated words where low when learned in noisy conditions and testing in quiet conditions. Opposite for quiet learning and quiet testing.

1. Collins and Loftus (Spreading Activation Model) 1975
2. Loftus et al (Weapon Focus) 1987