4a: Changing Living Standards

Chapter summary: -GB enjoyed a short boom after WW1 but by 1920 the number of unemployed never fell below 1m in the interwar years - the depression was however regional, largely concentrated in the areas of oldindustries while new industried developed in the Midlands and southeast - many poorer people suffered illness due to malnutrition  - those in work saw their living standards improve with a rise in consumerism - over 1m council houses were built, often on estates outside the cities, while owner-occupiers grew from 10%% of householders - WW2 equalised society by guaranteeing minimum standards - rationing and austerity remained in force in the immediate post-war years - prosperity returned in the 1950s with the development of the 'Affluent Society' - consumer spending grew, often fuelled by credit - pockets of deprivation remained where residents could not share consumerism

Key information 1 the impact of boom, crisis and recovery, 1918-39 The government had hoped for a consumer boom after WW1 revive the economy and were given a 2 year boom, 1918-20. The short lived boom failed to generate the high levels of employment needed to absorb the large numbers of men demobilising from the Army. This caused an economic crisis and decline in living standards Not all regions experienced the same economic hardships boom 1918-20 - as the war came to an end, David Lloyd George's promise of 'a land fit for heroes to live in' seemed initially achievable  - the post war boom allowed for firms to recalibrate for peacetime productions however prices rose and the government did little to stop it - initially demobbed soldiers returned to work and it seemed that living standards would rise and that families had money to spend economic crisis in the 1920-30s - the boom was short lived and by 1920 there were 1m unemployed with 1/3 being ex-service men; beggars began to appear many of which had war medals - the growth in unemployment led to cuts in living  - while unemployment never fell below 1m during the 30s, the picture was not uniform across GB; new industries were emerging and as a result unemployment was not as high in these areas - in 1932 approximately 12% of those engaged in electrical appliance manufacturing were unemployed compared with up to 70% of those engaged in ship building - other factors were noted too; often young women could maintain employment as teachers or nurses and many people resented their being able to buy what were considered fripperies at the counters of Woolworths while men were unemployed regional differences ->    - the decline of heavy industry such as ship building and the production of coal, iron and cotton had a huge impact on living standards in the areas where they were concentrated    -  as a result of the decline of old industries, a disparity between living standards in the poorest and wealthies parts of the country widened    - at the height of the Great Depression in 1932 London and the southeast faced unemployment rates of 11% cpared to almost 49% in Wales     - areas such as the south Wales coalfields, the shipbuilding regions of Clyde and the Tyne and formerly busy ports like Liverpool slumped hunger ->    - hunger was a persistent factor in the lives of many unemployed families in these depresses areas    - a survey from 1933 concluded unemployment benefits were insufficient to provide a minimum diet recommended by the Ministry of Health    - it was only during the 1930s that a real scientific understanding about the effect of nutrition shortages emerged and the causes of deficiency disease like rickets were understood    - for many families in depressed areas meat and fresh veg was a rarity    - on average far more working class women went hungry than men when there was insufficient food to go around; children would eat first and then men as the primary bread winners leaving women with little    - staples like bread, margarine and tea made up most meals    - because most money was diverted towards food there was little left for anything else meaning that homes, clothes and possessions became progressively worn and shabby and were irreplaceable if they were damaged or lost    - many poor working class families managed to make end meet by getting 'tick' (informal agreement to have goods and pay later) from the local green grocers and in poorer areas the local pawnbroker enabled families to borrow money    - the popular picture of the depression years being a time of poverty, hunger and hardship for all is misleading as some areas saw an improvement in living standards    - after 1933 light industries grew in the southeast of England and these more prosperous areas experienced a consumer boom improvements in living standards As the economy recovered, living standards improved for those in work although there were still areas in depression the consumer boom ->    - household electrical appliances such as washing machines, electric cookers and vacuum cleaners, often purchased on credit, filled the homes of middle class families throughout the 30s     - in 1930 there were 200,000 vacuum cleaner sales in a year, 1938 this rose to 400,000; 300% increase in electric cooker sales between 1930-5    - this growth was due to the greater number of homes that were electrified, many being  built in new suburban housing estates and indicates that electrification of homes had a significant effect in improving living standards     - it also shows that before the consumer boom of the 1950s there was a growing market for consumer goods    -these consumers were being supplied by new chains such as Marks and Spencers and Sainsburys and the advertising and public relations industries helped to create growing consumer demand for new products food ->    - there was a wider variety of foodstuff such as fresh fruit imported from abroad which led to improved diets; although some believed fresh fruit was harmful to children and most fresh fruit still came in tins to be accompanied by evaporated milk    - prices for basic foodstuff such as teas, sugar, veg and milk fell; even for the less affluent food improved    - it is estimated that by the late 20s there were 20,000 fish and chip shops in GB with fish less than 2p and chips at 1p, it was an affordable treat housing ->    - many moved from overcrowded terraces in inner city areas to council houses in the suburb; of the 1.1m council houses built during  the interwar period , 90% were on new estates    - the number of owner occupiers increased too; in 1914, 10% of the population owned their own homes and by 138, 32% did    - increasing home ownership was a result of government policy     - decent new houses could be purchased  from £450  the London region and outside this region a small bungalow would cost £250; older homes could be purchased for £125 in less affluent areas which was less than a new small car

Key information 2 the effects of 'total war' and austerity, 1939-51 During WW2 the government intervened directly in the supply of food,clothing and other essential items. Germany's sinking of GB shipping and the need to divert resources away from the civilian economy to the Army, put pressure on the standard of living in GB through rationing. Living standards were also adversely affected by the bombing of GB cities where many homes were destroyed. However, people had better employment prospects and pay during the war years. The immediate post-war years saw a period of austerity as GB struggled to recover from the devastation of the war rationing    - had a direct effect on standards of living. It ensured that the vast majority of the population had the same limited access to food and resources, irrespective of how much or how little money they had.     - The creating of a Ministry of Food in 1940 involving 50,000 administrators meant that nearly all foodstuffs, including meat, fish, dairy, coffee and chocolate where allocated by ration cards    -every ration book holder were allocated points that they could use each month on whatever they wanted, meaning they still had a degree of choice in what they bought.    - not only was food rationed but other essential items such as clothing, soap, paper, fuel and kitchen utensils were controlled by rationing    - the restrictions in the availability of food were accompanied by a government public information campaign which emphasised thriftiness and a make do and mend mentality along with other ideas on how to make food and what to eat from the available food that was most nutritious and healthy. Substitutes for normal foodstuffs were often unpleasant and unappetising. The lack of white flour led the government to introduce the National Loaf, a grey-looking type of bread which was generally agreed to be unpleasant to eat. Only one out of seven consumers preferred it to normal bread.    - in 1942 restaurants also became subject to rationing controls. This was, in part, to prevent resentment from working class households who saw wealthier Britons getting round the rationing restrictions and eating well. Restaurants were restricted in how much food they could serve and only a very limited amount of meat and fish was available.    - some evidence now suggests that while many people in Britain may have felt their standards of living decline during the war, their health actually improved. This was because food was supplemented with vitamins and minerals by the Ministry of Food. the level of infant mortality feel during the war years which contributed to the baby boom. working conditions     - the large number of new jobs created during the war for civilian munitions workers offered good standards of pay and working conditions as a result of negotiations with the trade unions    - average pay for GB workers increased during the war, even though the money they earned could buy only as much as their rations would allow    - weekly ration~ : 4oz margarine, 4oz bacon, 1 egg, 2oz of butter, 2oz tea, 1oz of cheese, 8oz of sugar    - in order to allow women munitions workers freedom to work creches were established in factories of many essential war industries. The first were set up in November 1941 and within 6 months there were 667 creches that were either open or in the process of being set up housing    - mass bombings in ww2 resulted in ~40,000 people and the destruction of around 2 million homes in towns and cities. Rural countryside areas were not directly affected.     - In the post war era the destruction of the city centres of Coventry and other cities gave town planners and architects the opportunity to rebuild along what they believed were appealing modern lines.    - they followed the pre war Taylor Walters Report which specified minimum space and number of rooms, and restricted building to twelve houses per acre. people moved into homes with bathroom, kitchens and modern appliances - and most importantly, gardens to cultivate Austerity, 1945-51 - some  rationing lasted long after the end of ww2. The Labour government had been forced to introduce bread rationing between 1946-48; described as 'the most hated measure ever to have been presented to the people of this country' by Daily Mail - other non-foodstuff remained rationed: clothing until 1949 along with wood, furniture produced between 1942-52 was designed e as little wood as possible and referred to as utility furnishing and was restricted to new couples or those who had their homes bombed - the labour government had little choice but to continue rationing as GB was bankrupt by the war         - 55% of GB food was imported but GB did not have foreign currency reserves to pay for all the imports needed         - the USA ended GB's wartime financial lifeline in 1945, the Lend Lease Agreement - raising the standard of living in the immediate aftermath of the war was therefore very difficult. - other overseas spending commitments such as feeding parts of Germany that were under GB control, keeping men fighting in Greece and re-establishing GB control in Asian countries like Malaya, Impacted on spending at home. - expensive GB defence commitments grew again in 1950 with the start of the Korean War, diverting resources away from the civilian consumer economy and into rearmament winter of 1946-7 ->    - extremely heavy snow exposed the extent of GB post war economic fragility and had a significant effect on the quality of life for GB people.     - from December 16 to March 1947the country was partially paralysed by snow and ice. This would normally not have been such a problem but because coal stocks had been depleted by the war it led to coal shortages for GB homes    - famalies who relied on coal to heat homes instead used electric fires placing an increased strain on the national grid    - electiricty supply to industry and homes was cut by the minister for fuel and power, Emmanuel Shinwell to 19 hours a day. This resulted in cold homes, factory closures and unemployment     - the government feared a shortage of food, 1/4 of GB sheep were lost, root vegetables were frozen in the ground and food reserved declined to a point that Canadian and Australian citizens began to post food parcels to GB families a planned economy ->    - the Labour government believed that a planned economy would eventually result in raised standards of living.    - in 1950 the manifesto accepted food shortages and other essential items and luxuries    - the Conservatives however campaigned to end rationing as quickly as possible and although Labour won the election it was with a reduced minority     - the electoral defeat of Labour in 1951 was partly attributed to the failure of the government to ensure food and energy distribution housing ->    - the huge problem of homelessness caused by the destruction of homes in the was was dealt with by building wooden pre-fabricated homes that could be assembled quick and cheap pre-fabricated housing ->    - in Catford, southeast London, the Excalibur Estate was built between 1945-6. it was the product f the 1944 Housing and Temporary Accommodation Act, passed in anticipation of post-war housing needs.    - the pre fabricated homes were small 2 bedroom bungalows that were designed to last for a minimum of 10 years (many stil standing in 2015), they had wooden walls and flat roofs    - despite the problems with damp and cold, many owners recored immense satisfaction and happiness with life on the estates and were often reluctant to eventually leave    - other pre fabricated homes were made out of pre cast concrete frames and known as Airey houses, after industrialist Sir Edwin Airey's company built them; they also had issues with cold and damp blocks of flats ->    - appeared to be an easy solution to the loss of houses belonging to the working class in the inner-city areas    - in 1951 the Lawn Flats ere built in Harlow, Essex. the Lawnsas the first of a generatio of 'point' blocks where all the flats were accessiblerom a central landing and elevator    - given official approval by the Festival of GB and were seen as an attractive, modern and scientific solution to GB's housing needs    - another housing development with close connections to the Festival was thr Lansbury Estate in Poplar, east London, that had been heavily bombed    - it was designed to that the neighbours within it would have close access to their amenities (schols, shops etc) which would help to create communities     - Frederick Gibberd designed Lawn flats and also created the Lansbury Estate's own indoor market at Chrisp Street which was included in the Festival The Festival of GB ->    - in 1951 GB celerated the centenary of the Great Exhibition of 1951. A Festival of GB was held in order to help boost exports and to showcase GB manufacturing and science after 6 years of post war austerity    - the government hoped that the fesitval would raise moral and act as 'one united act of national reassessment, and one corporate reaffrimation faith in the nations future'    - the festival took 3 years to plan, 1948-51nd events were held nationally; the focal point was London's South Bank, a former warehouse district that now featured a modern new riverside embankment and gardens, the reshaping of the South Bank of the Thames wwas meant to showcase what housing would look like in the GB of the future; this displays showed off cutting edge architecture, science, engineering and design which suggested consumer and economic confidence was growing new towns act 1946 ->    - in the immediate post war era and throughout the 1950s, government investedin housing and in large parts because of the homelessess caused by wartime bombing but also because of a belief that governments had a social responsibility to improve the standard of living in GB, especially working class lives    - the most important piece of housing legislation passed by the post war Labour governments was the New Towns Act 1946; created 14 new towns in GB which were designed to relieve the overcrowed working class districts of big cities like London and Birmingham    - new towns such as Stevenage, Telford, Cumbernauld were designed singmodern architecture and town planning, For many working class families who had lived in crowded slums before the war, they represented a considerable improvement in living condition; first time many had lived in suburban estates - as housing conditions improved and full employment appeared a reality, the post war period saw the development of a consumer society.

Key information 3 The growth of a consumer society, 1951-79 The post war decades in GB saw the longest sustained improvement in living standards in GB history and was referred to as the 'Affluent Society'. Even in 1970s when inflation reached double figures the overall standard of living improved. This was based on:  global economic boom throughout the post-war era; GB's welfare state, which ensured a basic standard of living r most of the population; relatively low energy prices - until the early 1970s; a commitment by Labour and the Conservatives to full employment; strong trade unions, able to negotiate high wages for their members; the increasing availability of consumer credit; the rise in average wages since 1945. In 1957 PM, Harold Macmillan famously declared that 'most of our people have never had it so good' Consumer spending - in 1957 GB spent >£1b on consumer goods rising to £1.5b by 1960 demonstrating the dramatic increase in consumption - wages in 1959 were on average 2x what they were in 1950 - money was spent on labour saving devices with their new high wages - the amount of labour saving devices in households grew; 1955 only 17% washing machine but by 1966 60% did. - the use of labour saving devices made women's lives less tedious as it reduced their workload in the house, due to this advertisers appealed to women as they were also often the ones in charge of the budget. consumer credit->    -  one factor that allowed working class families to buy consumer  goods was the relaxation of the rules surrounding consumer credit in 1954    - in 1955 the demand for TVs rose by 10% given the new ability to borrow, some shops had to announce a 3 month wait on products due to the increase in demand    -  in the interwar years buying on credit had been far less morally accepted; 'respectable' people lived only on what they had and did not borrow consumer choice ->    - the economic shocks of the 70s seemed to do little to slow down consumer spending or consumer choice    - throughout the decade GB taste for foreign food an drink rapidly grew; partly due to low price holidays which gave people a desire for the foods and the rapid growth of low cost supermarkets  new towns - in the 1960s new towns were created which demonstrated the success of the new towns act 1964 - between 1961 and 1964 Runcorn, Skelmersdale, Redditch, Washington and Livingston all became new towns; in 1967 a final series of towns were created including Milton Keynes - inner city families began to move to the new towns due to affluence - prices remained stable and real wages rose by 130% between 1955-69 - architects and critics tended to view the new towns as lifeless and artificial but this did not reflect the experience of most people  - the availability of central heating, hot water, gardens and green spaces, access to shops and amenities made life in the new towns attractive 'Admass' - in the 1950-60s the new prosperity was enjoyed by many but there was also anxieties about the growth of the new consumer society - J.B. Priestley (writer) invented the new term 'admass' to describe the new society of mass consumption and advertising which he thought encouraged superficiality - as american brands (e.g. Ford, Hoover, Heinz) dominated the market there were fears about the Americanisation of GB culture - a 1953 study of teen girls noted 'the amazing extent to which the minutiae of clothes and hair arrangements of an American actress may affect the spending habits of a girl in a mining village Durham or a girl in tenement in central London' - former US public servant, Harry Hopkins, went one step further  1964 calling GB just 'one more offshore island' Poverty - despite the improvements in the quality of life for millions of people there were still pockets of deep deprivation in GB - in 1966 the housing charity Shelter was founded in order to help the 12,000 people nationwide who were homeless and the tens thousands of people living in temporary accommodation - people living in poverty were unable to enjoy the new consumerism and instead were forced to struggle in order to survive  - in 1967 it was revealed that 7.5m people were still living beneath the poverty line and often in cold, damp and dirty homes - in 1963 Manchester still had 80,000 slum houses without running water, heating or inside toilets; most were overcrowded, deprived and had little privacy - the most vulnerable residents in these run down neighbourhoods were elderly - in 1965, 1.5m elderly people lived alone with most on small pension; they had a poor quality of life; the elderly however were rarely focused on with the media focusing on young audiences with disposable income high rise flats ->    - during the 1960s new system buil high rise flats were created to replace terrace housing in inner cities    - two architects, Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith described the tower blocks as 'streets in the sky'    - the flaw was that they were often cold and damp     - 1968 Ronan Point flats had an explosion in London which killed 3 people and brought the scandal to national attention; when investigated for the cause (gas leak) it was found that builders had used old newspapers instead of concrete and that some parts were structurally unsound    -whilst Ronan Point was a high profile case there were many other flats that were left as they were on estates with rising levels of crime conclusions - the post war era saw improvements in living standards across society which would have been almost unimaginable to many in the pre war period - despite this there were still pockets of deprivation and poverty particularly in inner cities - many in GB enjoyed a consumer culture in which goods were readily available , often on credit, and living standards improved dramatically, fuelled by low unemployment and rising wages - many of the problems would surface to a greater degree later in the period when affluence came under threat