Russia 1917-91: From Lenin to Yeltsin Government

Communist Government in the USSR, 1917-85

Context/ Introduction to Russia Bolshevik Party- established in 1903 Target- repressive Tsarist regime ruling Russia- leader= Tsar Nicholas II Aims- Get rid of upper and middle classes who exploited workers and peasants under capitalism developed w/ Industrial revolution 'Workers of the world unite, you have nothing to lose but your chains' Marx   March 17- Fall of Tsarist regime- provisional gov set up Party= vanguard of Revolution- armed seizure of power in coup d'etat Dictatorship of the proletariat- government ruled on behalf of working class promoting socialism by gov control of economy and interests of workers   1917-Bolsheviks relatively small group- claimed to represent interests of proletariat but didn't have enough support to lead popular revolution Opposition inc.: Socialist revolutionaries and Mensheviks= left with groups, Tsarist supporters, Nationalist groups   Opposition to the Bolshevik Party in 1918 Right-wing and liberals- feared Bolsheviks would remove their business & deny them political freedoms- Marxism challenge to rich and privileged in Russia Nationalists- Ukrainians, Poles, Finns- collapse of regime chance to assert independence   Dealing with fellow left wing groups- SRs & Mensheviks assumed share of gov Lenin rejected calls for socialist coalition Constituent Assembly, Jan 18- democratically elected- SRs successful as mobilised support among peasantry Bolsheviks = 175 seats 9 mil votes SRs = 410 votes 21 mil votes Lenin dissolves Assembly- condemns as instrument of bourgeoisie Used All-Russian Congress of Soviets as instrument of support NO REAL FORUM FOR OPPOSITION             Destruction of other political parties Removal of vote from bourgeoisie class (employers and priests)- stripped opposition of possible reservoir of support Mensheviks & SRs-difficult to publish news due to restrictions b=placed by Bolsheviks  Mar 19- Bolshevik renamed Communist Party= by 1921 all other parties effectively banned January-March 1921-5000 Mensheviks arrested Arrests of Mensheviks & SRs in 1921&22- ceased to exist as organised parties   Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 Took Russia out of First World War Lost control of Baltic States of Lithuania, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, Finland National humiliation for conservatives esp. military officers serving in Tsar's army Restore pride- overthrow Bolsheviks   Whites Those opposed to Bolsheviks during civil war of 1918-20 Promised foreign help from Allies keen for Russia to stay in war Allies willing to supply arms, money & troops to those ensuring Russia rejoin war   Why did Lenin sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk? Key factor in bringing the collapse of  the Tsarist regime and Prov government was pressure of war War sapped energy & resources of government Little chance of military success- waste of resources, time and men for Lenin Only was to consolidate power of Bolshevik Party &deal w/ internal enemies was to pull out of war- focus on Russia only 

The Russian civil war, 1918-21

Reds- Bolsheviks and supporters Bolshevik forces= Red Army Support mainly industrial workers and peasants- saw Bolsheviks as best alternative than landowners and factory owners Whites- Inc. ppl who wanted a return of Tsar Liberals & supporters of Prov Gov Military leaders dissatisfied with Russia pulling out of war National minorities seeking independence from Russia SR & Menshevik members denied involvement in gov All also received aid from Allies in first world war

Overview of civil war- Bolsheviks attacked by forces of General Krasnov at Pulkovo Heights near Petrograd straight after Oct. Rev Series of military campaigns against Bolsheviks mounted after Treaty of BL signed End of 1920- Bolsheviks defeated Whites and secured communist rule Civil war timeline- Area directly under Bolshevik control limited to Moscow to Petrograd in NW Reds successfulk due to organisation in military, economic & political terms Whites amalgam of several grps- limited co-op worsened by long front Whites had control over Corruption & inefficieny meant failure of putting aid from Allies to good effect End of 1920-White strongholds defeated  Trotsky's military strategy coherent - became Commissar for War early 1918- made Red Army efficient Army formed from Red Guard units + pro-Bolsheviks parts of old Tsarist armed forces Conscription rose to 5 mil by end of war Bolsheviks able to extend gov direction over economy to ensure resources organised&deployed effectively thru War communism Adequate supplies for Red Army thru nationalisation of industry  Food supplies requisitioned from peasants- unpopular w/ peasantry nut provided food Civil war caused adoption of highly authoritarian & centrally controlled system Worker supported Bolsheviks to degree as best guarantors of gains from Revolution Peasantry despised Bolsheviks- Land Decree of 1917 guaranteed distribution of land in favour   

Results of the Civil War- Bolshevik state highly centralised due to demands of civil war War fighting required quick decision making and direction of resources from gov Power in hands of gov & party leadership based in Moscow Extensive use of terror against opponent Foretold development of party after civil war Experience of civil war reinforced militaristic values in population Fighters in war didn't buckle under pressure & accustomed to use of terror Tenth Party Congress, 1921- Attention of Party on divisions withinBolshevik Party Party membership- 300000-1917 --> 730000-1921 Ban on formation of factions within Party put forward by Lenin Attempt to impose view of leadership on Party Expulsion from Party if rule not followed 1921- Bolsheviks faced Kronstadt Mutiny- revolt by sailors previously loyal to Bolsheviks & peasant uprising = Tambov Rising  

Nature of government under Lenin

Apparatus of government  Proletarian representative organisations brought under Bolshevik control & sidelined Inc. Soviets, trade unions & factory committees Trade unions-organisation representing workers interests based on trade (e.g. railway workers) Factory committees-small group that represented workers within particular factory - contained workers of different trades in same workplace System headed by Sovnarkom devised based on representative bodies from All Russian Congress of Soviets Sovnarkom-  Council of People's Commissars- made up of 20 members responsible for making key decisions and giving gov orders-- members elected by Central Executive Committee- make quick decisions & met on daily basis in civil war Central Executive Committee- large group elected by Congress of Soviets- oversaw work of gov and administration All-Russian Congress of Soviets- supreme law making body of state- had to approve laws issued by Sovnarkom- theory: representative body made from members elected by local soviets  Also inc provincial & city soviets made from representatives from local soviets - conducted admin of gov at local level During Civil War- Bolsheviks used control over Sovnarkom to issue orders rubber- stamped by Congress of Soviets & enforced on country Party control over the state Early 1920s- power shift from ^ apparatus of state to party Party apparatus: POLITBURO- 7-9 leading members of Bolshevik Party chosen by Party's Central Committee- made key decisions affecting policy- replaced Central Committee-met daily under Lenin- mas importante que Sovnarkom = Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Leon Trotsky, Josef Stalin CENTRAL COMMITTEE- 30-40 members chosen by Party Congress- aft 1919 power increasingly delegated to Politburo PARTY CONGRESS- body made of representatives of local branches - discussed general programme of party- ban on factions under ruling on part unity stifled debate- met yearly 1917-26 LOCAL PARTY BRANCHES- each headed by party secretary - secretaries potentially powerful e.g Zinoviev Moscow & Kamenev Petrograd Party structure controlled decision making shown by infrequency of meetings by state bodies 1919- decision made to make secret police directly responsible to Politburo than Sovnarkom  Democratic Centralism Gov claimed by Bolsheviks to be based on principle:  Soviets represented workers at local level  Concerns taken through structure of organisations to decision making bodies at higher levels of gov Decisions made in interests of ppl & implemented at regional and local level Reality: Soviets undermined when Bolsheviks took power  System of ruling by decree= not involved in decision making  Soviets existed- dominated by Bolsheviks- no longer responsive to concerns of workers Local soviets part of local gov- only carried out orders given by centre

Growing centralisation of power

Power centralised to Politburo Personal power of Lenin Was Chair of Sovnarkom and Politburo member Preferred collective leadership w/ discussion before decision Many Bolsheviks saw Lenin as inspiration- expected strong leadership Heated debates stopped by threat of resignation by Lenin from party position- e.g signing Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918 & adoption of NEP 1921 1922 --> Lenin's power of influence limited by several strokes & health deterioration  Colleagues tried to gain positions- prepared for struglle of succession Power centralised in Party structure that personal authority

Growth of party bureaucracy & nomenklatura system Rapid growth of vast party bureaucracy (civil service who administer policies) Many joined party to improve career as al other political forces absent Nomenklatura system developed to develop committed communist bureaucracy  = system of appointing people to jobs from list approved by Party leadership- encouraged corruption as favours expected from those promoted Effective tool of centralisation administered y General Secretary 1924-membership of Communist Party at 1 mil

Soviet Constitution of 1924 1922-extended control of Party over outlying regions of old Russian Empire Sent in Red Army forces & encouraged local Bolsheviks to organise mass demos and street violence Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) established in 1924- name reinforced idea it was federal system Theoretically federal state- reality tightened authority of Communist party in Moscow Party bodies of republics under control of central Party structure Russians had upper-hand compared to other nationalities- made up 90% of land & 72% of population  75% of Communist Party Russian

Use of terror Implemented by Cheka - headed by Felix Dzerzhinsky  Party Committee Formed in Dec 1917 Purpose: Deal with counter-revolution, sabotage & speculation Operated outside law Dealt with enemies inside Party  Played key role in establishing central control over Party apparatus Carried out executions of suspects without trial Aug 1918- Left wing opponents arrested after assassination attempt on Lenin 1921-2- Red Terror- further arrests 1917-23- Cheka responsible for executions of ⁓200000 ppl 1922- After Civil War- Cheka replaced b OGPU ( All-Union State Political Administration Activities brought under supervision of state  Terror became discreet& bureaucratic  Same leader as Cheka  1922--> Terror exercised within Party- large no.s of Party purged  Chitiska (cleansing- purge of Party)-1918 1920s- another purge of Party 1/3 party purged under Lenin Expanding party- purges needed to ensure discipline & order- adventurers, drunkards &hooligans targeted in Party Terror continuing after civil war shows lack of confidence by Lenin n hold of power- near end of life, Lenin developed obsession over terror, especially execution of priests

Degree of centralisation Gov chaotic- local mafia of Bolsheviks  & black marketeers used this to defy orders from Moscow Debate within Party not completely stifled: 1917-Kamenev & Zinoviev opposed Lenin's decision to launch revolution  1918- Fierce debate in Party on accepting Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1921- Introduction of NEP led to formation of left & right wing factions in Party 1920-21- role of trade unions much debate-- Worker's Opposition group favoured greater role of trade unions- Lenin crushed group-others emerged 1922-Joseph Stalin appointed General Secretary - observe potential opposition

Conclusion 1924- Communist Party dealt with opposition outside & in structure Party expanded w/o sacrificing unity or conformity of members Growth in power & size of party product of civil war- terror & dictatorship necessary to ensure survival 1917 seizing of power showed importance of idea of party as vanguard of revolution Bolsheviks claimed seizing means of production, use of violence & terror, establishing authoritarian regime all done in interests of proletariat State became vast bureaucracy running country for own benefit

Elimination of opponents in government & Party

Introduction ​​​​​​Jan 1924- Lenin died- collective leadership formed from members of Politburo  1924-8- constantly changing rivalries within group 1928-Stalin emerged as real power within CP - gained position through powers as General Secretary Stalin used common trends as Lenin to establish and maintain his personal dictatorship

Elimination of opponents within the government & party 1922- Stalin became General Secretary- aw the opportunities of gaining info and influence via position Saw that Lenin made main focus of power the Party rather than state- Party structure grew in power & size- Gen Sec head of Party structure General Secretary- head of Party secretariat- responsible for daily running of Party: Coordinated work across all party departments- has access to vast info Gained access to 26000+ personal files on Party members- could use against rivals Head of secret police reported to him regularly- few Politburo members not under surveillance Responsible for deciding agenda for Party meetings- could restrict issues debated Lenin Enrolment 1923-5= aim to increase no. industrial workers in Party ranks- 500000+ members recruited Members recruited politically naive & uneducated Stalin careful to ensure he could identify w/ demands and needs of new members- humble background helped Meant had support of new members who seek privileges of Party membership Had right to appoint ppl to Party positions - could appoint his supporters to key positions Those opposing Stalin roved from Politburo & replaced Kirov made head of Party in Leningrad 1926 to replace unfavourable Zinoviev Party congress dominated by loyal supporters of Stalin 'Comrade Card-Index', 'grey blur'- Nicknames of Stalin to emphasise willingness to do routine tasks - meant he could build up power unnoticed

Stalin's opponents in the Politburo Leon Trotsky- considered blatant successor, arrogant, didn't organise himself & supporters as viewed argument in Party beneath him Gregory Zinoviev- worked closely w/ Lenin, strong support in Leningrad, skilled orator, vain Lev Kamanev Lack of principles, Party Secretary in Moscow Nikolai Bukharin- young, intelligent, lacked political experience Mikhail Tomsky- leading figure in train union movement, influence declined due to restrictions in trade unions Alexei Rykov- Succeeded Lenin as Chair of Sovnarkom, major drinking problem

Stalin's removal of political rivals & securing of power Left- Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev, campaigned for Permanent revolution- encouraged proletarian revolution throughout world- favoured ending of NEP 1926- views criticised at Fifteenth Party Conference  Accused of forming factions- expelled from Politburo & demoted  Expelled from Party 1928- Zinoviev & Kamenev readmitted into Party after renunciation of previous views Trotsky- preferred to stick to principles- exiled to Central Asia-1929- expelled from USSR Right- Bukharin, Tomsky, Rykov- preferred NEP in short-term  1927-8-Party leadership divided over issue of industrialisation - Stalin aiming to launch First Five-Year Plan 1928-Emergence of Right Opposition group against First Five-Year Plan For continuation of NEP- feared decline of food production due to backlash of peasantry These views opposed Stalin's ideology of 'Socialism in One Country' Stalin issued directive to Party members 'The foundations of Leninism'- presented argument for removal of NEP- easy to read for politically naive industrial workers of Party Undermining of Bukharin's position by highlighting disagreements he had with Lenin in 1920's Bukharin accused of Trotskyism due to criticism of growth of bureaucracy Bukharin arranged secret meeting w/ Zinoviev & Kamenev- accusation of factions plausible  Accusation of faction forming carried death penalty Supporters of Right in Moscow Party branch& trade unions removed Stalin highlighted failure of NEP to prevent food shortages in cities- undermined Bukharin  Approved emergency grain requisitioning- NEP failure April 1929- Right Opposition in Politburo identified & removed from posts  Stalin felt this adequate to neutralise opposition to policies &position Stalin represented growing class of Party bureaucrats wishing to maintain privileges of their positions

1930's Purges

Increased Stalin's hold over Party Used the apparatus of terror established by Lenin  to dispose of 'enemies' Instruments of terror  Use of terror central feature of Stalin's rule. Key instruments of terror: Party Secretariat- collected info on Party members- could be used to condemn them as enemies of ppl Secret police- carried out surveillance, arrests & executions Ran Gulags-labour camps for victims of purges 1934- NKVD evolving from Cheka Increasingly bureaucratic  Purges of party members- hand in party membership then expelled from Party----Lenin Chistka of 1932-35 1932-New purge of Party membership- response to difficulties during 1st FYP & collectivisation Local Party officials ignored orders for implementation of policies Chistka meant to remove officials for rapid implementation of economic policy 1935- 22% of Party removed from posts-non-violent, showed mounting opposition to Stalin's policies Was opposition real? Victims of purges- LW= Kamenev, Zinoviev RW= Bukharin, Tomsky, Rykov Local Party level- Quotas set by Stalin demanding certain percentage of each Party branch purged Accusations- Working with Trotsky Spying for capiltalist powers Plotting to assassinate Stalin Reflect Stalin's paranoia- 'I trust nobody, not even myself' Stalin Increasing criticism of Stalin's policies-1932- 1932- Ryutin, former Party secretary  Issued document to Central Committee criticizing Stalin Accused him of personal dictatorship- called for abdication Criticism of brutality of enforcement of collectivisation Peasant resistance- unrest- particularly Ukraine & Caucasus Party officials criticised unrealistic targets in 5YP-could't be achieved Seventeenth Party Congress 1934 Intended to celebrate successes of 1st 5YP Kirov presented criticisms so pace of change slowed- received immense support Murder of Kirov 1934- 1st December 1934- assassinated by Leonid Nikolayev  Party member who felt Party didn't appreciate talents & rumours of affair of his wife with Kirov Suggested that murder carried out on Stalin's orders Kirov's assassin as member of opposition group led by Zinoviev & Kamenev= official explanation Kamenev & Zinoviev arrested- trialled Jan 1935 & sentenced to long terms of imprisonment murder catalyst for purging of large sections of Communist Party Show trials- 1935-6 - arrests & denunciations of members of Left Opposition Series of show trials ( public trials of leading enemies of the state- often filmed for propaganda use) Former leading figures of party accused of anti-Soviet activities Trial of the Sixteen- leaders of the Left, Zinoviev & Kamenev, Aug 1936 Accused of working as agents of Trotsky to undermine state Under immense pres. from NKVD- confessed to 'crimes' implicated leaders of right within conspiracy Trial of the Seventeen- 1937- Purge of party officials- Karl Radek  Accused of working w/ Trotsky & foreign gov to undermine soviet economy thru wrecking & sabotage Real crime- probs criticising Five-Year Plans Trial of the Twenty-One-1938 Purge of the Right- Tomsky committed suicide before trial Bukharin & Rykov accused of forming Trotskyite-Rightist Bloc' Both confessed- Bukharin's article 'Notes of an Economist' made clear criticisms of Stalin's economic policies Threat to Stalin Trials staged to ensure other Party members intimidated by power of State Relayed to Soviet population via radio & film footage Confessions produced under torture- after guilty verdict death penalty carried out Previous show trials- Shakhty trial 1928- managers & technical experts accused of holding back industrialisation  Emphasised no toleration to lack of commitment  Purges widen- Purges of the Red Army-137-8 3 out of 5 marshals purged 14 out of 16 army commanders & 35000 officers shot/imprisoned  Armed forces critical of demoralising impact of collectivisation on peasantry who made up bulk of soldiers

Agricultural reform Brezhnev onward; 1964-

1965-new leadership abolished Regional Economic Councils- placed more power into centre of planning apparatus  Gosplan given greater powers of coordination- showed power lay with conservatives like Brezhnev Brezhnev ruled Russia for 20 years

The Kosygin Reforms 1965- Alexei Kosgin PM- launched series of reforms aimed to unleash creativity in decision-making process+ improve productivity Reforms gave incentives to enterprise managers to use their resources efficiently Attempted to centralise planning- focus on cost & profit instead of Stalinist idea of quantity indicative of economic success Little achieved - reforms implemented by officials who showed hostility towards reforms Central planners disliked reforms making them accountable for policies they hadn't much control over Brezhnev sympathised with conservatives- sabotaged reforms Reforms watered down --> ineffective Bonuses for output high than bonuses for innovation- managers preferred tradit. methods Focus on bonuses for profit- enterprises made fewer, expensive items than mass cheap produce (needed most) 1968- Kosgin's power reduced- role in foreign affairs Reforms under Brezhnev Military industrial complex