Understanding Psychology: Chapter 1-3 Notes

Chapter 1: Intro to Psychology   MODULE 1-1 (1) - Intro to Psychology Introduction to Psychology Word Bank Clinical = mental health disorder Psychology = scientific study of behavior and mental processes Subfields of Psychology Behavioral Behavioral Genetics Studies inheritance of traits related to behavior Behavioral Neuroscience Examines biological basis of behavior Clinical  Clinical Psychology Deal with study , diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders Clinical Neuroscience/Neuropsychology Unities the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders Cognitive Focuses on the study of higher mental processes Counseling Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. Cross-cultural Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups Developmental Examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death Educational Concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as relationship between motivation and school performance Environmental Considers the relationship between people and their physical environment Evolutionary Considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors Experimental processes of sesing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world Forensic Focuses on legal issues, such as determining the accuracy of witness memories Health Explores relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease Industrial/Organizational Concerned with psychology of workplace Personality Focuses on consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another Program Evaluation Focuses on assessing large-scale programs, such as Head Start preschool program, to determine whether they are effective in meeting their goals Psychology of Women Focuses on issues in discrimination against women and causes of violence against women School Devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or behavioral problems Social Study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others Sport Applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise Biological Foundations of Behavior People are biological organisms Behavioral neuroscience Subfield of psychology Focuses on how the brain, nervous system and other biological aspects of the body determine behavior How do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think About the World? Experimental Process Studies the process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world Subspecialty Cognitive Psychology - Focuses on higher mental process, such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving Breakdown of Where US Psychologists Work Professional Services Professional Services Teaching Research Management/Supervision Other Work Activities Accounting/Finance/Contracts Employee Relations Sales Psychologists: A Portrait Historically, women actively discouraged from becoming psychologists Women now outnumber men in the field Consequences of racial & ethic minority underrepresentation among psychologists: Field is diminished by lack of diverse perspectives and talents Deters new members from entering the field Minorities possibly underserved: people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own ethic group Education/Careers for a Psychologist Education PhD - Doctor of Philosophy PsyD - Doctor of Psychology Master’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree Careers Administrator Serving as a counselor Providing direct care Education Business Government

Chapter 2: Psychological Research   MODULE 2-1 (4) - Scientific Method Scientific Method: Approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest   Scientific Method Process  Identify questions of interest stemming from Behavior and phenomenon requiring explanation Prior research finding Curiosity, creativity, insight Formulate an explanation Specify a theory Develop a hypothesis Carry out research Devise an operational definition of the hypothesis Start research method Collect data Analyze data   Theory  Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest Provide framework for understanding the relationships among a set of unorganized facts or principles Example diffusion of responsibility With more bystanders in an emergency situation the smaller share of each person feels Developed by Bibb Latane and John Darley   Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions Hypothesis: Prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested Operational Definition: Translation of hypothesis into specific testable procedures that can be measured and observed   Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons Permits them to places bits of observations with a coherent framework Help psychologists to make deductions about unexplained phenomena Develop ideas for future investigation   MODULE 2-2 (5) - Conducting Psychological Research What research methods do psychologists use? How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships in research studies   Introduction to MODULE 5   Research Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge Key to understanding the accuracy of hypotheses and theories   Descriptive Research Systematic investigation of a person, group, or pattern of behavior Several types of descriptive research   Archival Examples Existing data are examined to test a hypothesis: Census docs College record Online databases Newspapers clippings Advantage - inexpensive Disadvantage - problems with using existing data Data may not be in form that allows researcher to test hypothesis fully   Naturalistic Observation Investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior Does not make change in situation Advantage - Sample of what people do in their natural habitat Disadvantage - Inability to control any factors of interest   Survey Research Asked a series of questions about their behavior, attitude, and thoughts Advantage: can infer how a larger group would reponds if a representative is  surveyed Disadvantage - results would be inaccurate if sample is not representative Survey respondents may not want to admit to holding social undesirable attitudes   Case Study In-depth, immense investigation of people of an individual or small group of people Often include psychological testing Advantage - can use insights to improve our understanding of people in general Disadvantage - unique individuals make it impossible for generalizations   Correlational Research Research in which relationship between 2 sets of variables is examined to determine: Whether they  are associated or correlated Variables: behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change , or vary, in some way Correlation coefficient - Represent the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables Value can range from +1 to -1 Positive - As the variable of one increases, so will the value of the other variable Negative - As the variable of one increases, value of the other variable decreases Lack of relationship - value near 0 indicates no correlation Disadvantage - inability to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships   Experimental Research Experiment: Investigation between 2 or more variable by product   Experimental Groups/Control groups Treatment Manipulation implemented by experimenter Experimental group Any group participating in experiment that receives treatment Control Group   Independent variable: variable manipulated by experimenter Dependent variable: variable that is measured Expected  to change as a result of changes in the independent variable Dependent on the actions of the research participants that are taking part in the experiment   Random Assignment to condition : Participants assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance   Significant Outcome: statistically meaningful results Makes it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses   Replicated Research: research that is repeated in other settings, etc.   MODULE 2-3 (6) Critical Research Issues   Ethics of Research Guidelines that protects participants Protection of participants Right of participants to privacy regarding their bahe=avior Participations research is completely voluntary Informing Participants about natures of Procedures before participation in experiment All experiments must be reviews by independent panel before being conducted   Informed consent: document signed by participants Debriefing: full explanation after   Should Animals Be Used In Research?   Researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain Procedures that subjected to animal to distress are permitted: When alternate procedure is unavailable When research is justified by its prospective values Provides greater experimental control over nonhumans Procedures that might not be possible with people can be carried out.   Threats to Experimental Validity: Diversity in Research Subjects   Most research uses Intro Psych Students WEIRD - Western Education, Rich Democreatic Culture   Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias   Experimental Bias - factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable Experimenter expectations Participation expectations   Placebo - False treatment without any significant chemical properties  Double-blind procedure - Keeping experimenter and participant blind to the nature of the drug administered   END OF CHAPTER 2  

Chapter 3 - Neuroscience & Behavior   MODULE 3-1 (7) - Neurons   Structure of Neurons Neurons: Nerve Cells Consist of cell body that contains nucleus   Distinctive Feature of neurons    Dendrite - cluster of fibers at end of neuron that receives messages from other neurons Axon - part of the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons. Terminal Buttons - sends messages   How Neurons Fire Neurons follow an all-or-none law - rule that neurons are either on or off Resting state - negative electrical charge of about -70 millivolts within a neuron Before a neuron is triggered   Action potential - electric nerve   Speed of Transmission Speed in which an action potential travels along an axon is determined by Axon’s Size Thickness of myelin sheath   Neurons differ in terms of Quickness of impulse moving along axon Potential firing rate   Intensity of stimulus determines fire rate   Mirror Neurons Specialized Neurons that fire, when a person: enacts a particular behavior   Discovery of mirror neurons suggest that humans’ capacity to mitate other may be a inbor behavior   Helps in explaining how and why humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions   Possible basis for:  empathy feeling development of language in humans   Where Neurons Meet: Bridging The Gap   Synapse: Space between 2 neurons when axon of sending neuron communicates dendrites of receiving neuron by using chemical messages   Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite ( an sometimes the cell body) of receiving neuron   Not every neuron is capable of receiving chemical message carried by  particular neurotransmitter   Successful chemical communication is possible only when neuro   Types of chemical messages delivered by neurotransmitters:  Excitatory message If neurotransmitters remained at the side of the synapse, it would lead to: Receiving nero's awash, in a continual chemical bath Producing constant simulation of or coinhibilition of receiving neurons Effective communications would no longer be possible   Reuptake: reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal buttons  Understanding of reuptake has lead to development of certain  drugs that treat psychological disorders SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) Reduces the symptoms of depression.   MODULE 3-2 (8): Nervous System and Endocrine System   Central/Peripheral Nervous System   Central Nervous System: parts of the nervous system that includes brain and spinal cord Spinal Cords: Bundle of neurons that leave the brain an runs down the length of the back   Reflex: Automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus   Kinds of neurons involved in reflexes: Sensory Neurons (afferent) Motor Neurons (efferent)   Peripheral Nervous Systems: made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from spinal cord and brain and reaching extremities of body   Includes Somatic Division Autonomic Division   Activating Divisions of Autonomic Nervous Systems Autonomic Nervous system consists of Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division   Evolutionary Foundations of Nervous System Evolutionary Psychology - identifies behavior patterns Behavioral genetics - study of effects of heredity on behavior   Endocrine System: Chemicals/Glands Endocrine system - chemical communication network that sends messages Hormones - circulates through the blood Pituitary gland - major component  of endocrine system aka “master gland” Secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of endocrine system   MODULE 3-3 (9) - Brain How do researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain? What are the major parts of the brain, and what behavior is each part responsible? How do the 2 halves of the brain operate independently? How can an understanding of the nervous system help us find ways to alleviate disease and pain?   Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain Electroencephalogram (EEG) Records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of skull Functional magnetic resonance imaging Provides detailed, 3D computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body   Positron emission tomography (PET) Shows biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment Requires radioactive tracer injection Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity by exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field   Central Core: “Old Brain” Controls basic functions such as eating sleeping and is common to all vertebrates   Hindbrain contains: Medulla: Controls critical body functions, such as breathing and heartbeat Pons: Bridge in Hindbrain Acts as transmitter of motor information Involved in regulating sleep Cerebellum: Part of the brain that controls bodily balance Reticular Formation: Extends from medulla through the pons, passing through midbrain and forebrain Produces arousal of body Thalamus: Part of brain located in middle of central core that acts primarily to rely information about the senses Hypothalamus: Tiny part of brain, located below the thalamus Maintains homeostasis Produces and regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of species Eating, self-protection, sex   Limbic System: Beyond Central Core Limbic System: Part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, and reproduction Includes amygdala and hippocampus Plays important role in emotion, learning, and memory, along with hippocampus   Sometimes referred as “animal brain” due to similarities in structures and functions to those of other mammals   Cerebral Cortex: “New Brain”   Responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain   Lobes: 4 major sections of cerebral cortex Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital Sulci: deep grooves in cortex that physically divides 4 sets of lobes   Motor Area of Cortex   Motor area: Responsible for body’s voluntary movement Well mapped: researchers have identified amount and relative location of cortical tissue used for movement in specifics parts of body   Sensory Area of Cortex   Sensory area: Site in the brian of the tissue that corresponds to each sense with the degree of sensitivity related to amount of tissue  Example: somatosensory area: in parietal lobe; specific locations associated with the ability to perceive touch and pressure in particular location of body  Auditory area in temporal lobe Visual Area in occipital lobe   Association Areas of Cortex   Association Areas: Site of higher mental processes Thought, language, memory, speech Example Phineas Gage, railroad worker accident Damage to association area Aphasia: result from injuries to association areas of the brain, and create problems with language Broca’s aphasia Wenicke’s aphasia   Neuroplasticity and Brain   Neuroplasticity Changes in the brain related to the addition of new neurons that occur throughout the lifespan New interconnections between neurons Reorganizations of info-porcessions areas   Neurogenesis - Creation of new neurons in certain areas of the brain during adulthood   Specialization of Hemispheres: 2 Brains or 1? Brain is divided into 2 roughly mirror-image halves Hemispheres: Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location Lateralization: Dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions Language   Split Brain: Exploring 2 Hemispheres   Split-brain patients Corpus callosum surgically cut Last resort treatment for severe epilepsy   END OF CHAPTER 3