Intro:
Paleolithic man made one of the most important discoveries that humans have ever made: that every ❌ has the ability to ❌ itself. When the function of the ❌ was learned, humans became ❌. This sounds relatively simple, but not until the Industrial Revolution would there be as revolutionary a ❌ in the ❌ of human beings. This transition from ❌ to farmers is called the Neolithic Revolution, and it made civilization itself possible.

1.2.A Thousands of years ago, ❌ came to the ❌. The ❌ animals hunters depended on died out or migrated, forcing some people to settle down wherever they found a secure source of ❌. The ❌ way of life ended and human beings became ❌. The practice of ❌ transformed the ❌ of human societies. It also changed the nature of the ❌ that were farmed.

Agriculture seems to have been discovered independently at several locations in the world (see map), then diffused to different areas. It is important to note that not everyone adopted agriculture. Some societies remained hunter-gatherers and others remained pastoral.

1.2.C Pastoral ❌ were somewhat of a ❌ group between hunter-gatherers and ❌ farmers. They depended on herds of animals which they kept and followed, a lifestyle known as ❌. Because their ❌ were connected to the needs of animal herds, ❌ moved in patterns based on ❌. Agriculture was probably discovered by pastoral nomads who, upon returning to a location from the previous year, found that ❌ they had gathered ❌ into crops. Africa, Europe and Asia all had people who practiced pastoralism.

1.2 C. As you can see from the map above, agriculture was discovered at ❌ by ❌. The crops people cultivated depended on what was ❌ to their location. Professor Jared Diamond has pointed out that the nature of ❌ plants that grew in individual places had a profound ❌ upon the development of human societies. For example, regions that grew ❌ had an ❌ over those that grew less durable or nutritious foods. Cereal grains (rice, barley, wheat and corn) produced a harvest rich in ❌ and other nutrients. They were easy to ❌. In storage, cereal grains would not ❌ as quickly as legumes or yams. As a result, societies that cultivated these crops were more likely to produce ❌ of food.

1.2 D and E
D. Farming is hard work. Land must be cleared of trees, rocks, and other ❌ to sowing seeds. The soil needs to be broken up and, in many cases, water must be diverted to ❌ crops when rain becomes scarce. These needs drove human beings to learn to work together in more ❌ ways than hunter-gatherers had. ❌ proved to be an advantage in survival.
E. With agriculture, human beings ❌ plants in ways they would never exist in nature. They borrow crops from other regions and import them to their farms. Such practices intensify and ❌ the natural processes of ❌ and environmental ❌. You can read a scholarly article on this topic HERE. Pastoralism likewise concentrated ❌ to a repetitive cycle of ❌ lands. As grasslands were stripped of plants, erosion ❌.

II. Agriculture and pastoralism began to transform human societies.
A. The ability to ❌ food on a regular basis drastically changed life; there was more ❌ and order. Life developed according to ❌, as people had to follow ❌ for planting and harvest. The dependence upon nature was evident in ❌ that came to worship ❌, fertility, and the natural elements upon which agriculture depended. Probably the most ❌ change that took place with the Neolithic revolution was a dramatic increase in population. More food could sustain more people living together. Small bands of people developed into ❌.
B. At its most basic element, civilization is based on the ❌. In hunting/gathering societies, most all of the people were engaged in acquiring and processing food. For this reason, as we have seen, there was a ❌ of equality. There were no significant differences that distinguished certain people from others. However, in communities that practiced ❌ this basic equality began to break down. The ❌ of food produced by farming created the conditions for the rise of social ❌.

The ability to produce a ❌ freed some people from having to spend all their time producing food; individuals could now specialize in other skills. Artisans crafted weapons, ❌, and other specialty products that could not be produced as readily by ❌ people. Moreover, surpluses of food created the need for a ❌ class to emerge. The stores of ❌ kept by neolithic people were the perfect targets for raiding groups of nomadic people. Some members of the village thus were trained in the skills of defense to protect the fruit of their labor; the first ❌ were born. With these divisions of people came inequality. Some groups gained more prestige and status than others. ❌ who presided over rituals that were believed necessary for harvests gained ❌ and ❌. Warriors were essential for the protection of food. Highly skilled ❌ who could work with metals or produce tools became highly valued. Thus ❌ emerged in societies that were able to produce ❌.

C. As groups of ❌ arose in societies, ❌ became more ❌. Agricultural production ❌, societies began to ❌, and ❌ improved. Some examples of these advancements are:
❌ Agriculture created the need for ❌ and ❌. In response to this need, craftsmen learned to make ❌ from ❌ and other materials, and they became essential for ❌, wine, and other goods. They could also be used for ❌ purposes. Pottery became a medium for ❌ and ❌ expression as people came to etch designs on the exterior of pots.
❌ Tools permit the same amount of work to be done by ❌ people. In agriculture, perhaps the most important early tool was the plow. Plows ❌ the compacted earth and turn the soil to prepare for the sowing of seeds. The more ❌ the plow, the fewer number of workers are needed to prepare for planting. More ❌ in agriculture led to ❌ surpluses, which in turn allowed for more social ❌ and ❌.
❌ In 1991 two hikers in the Italian Alps discovered a neolithic man whose body had been preserved in a glacier for over 5000 years. "Iceman," as he came to be called, provided modern researchers with much information about the diet, clothing, and skills of European neolithic people. This was particularly important because textiles ❌ quickly in most instances leaving us with little evidence about this skill of early man. Two of iceman's possessions were items that had been woven. This craft is known as ❌. Early textiles were made of dried plants and fibers, and were woven by hand. Later, people made ❌ to speed up the process of textile production. In villages and cities, textile production became another ❌ craft, another example of the specialization of labor.
❌ Another area of ❌ that neolithic people developed was metallurgy, the knowledge of working with ❌. This technology is very important because it provides the tools for many other areas of ❌, such as farming, textiles, and the forging of ❌.
The earliest metallurgists worked with ❌, a metal that can be ❌ into shape directly from the ground. As new metals were found and alloys discovered, metallurgy became a highly skilled practice. Metals have different ❌, grains, and characteristics that must be learned. A major break-though in metallurgy was ❌. Bronze is an ❌ of copper and tin. It required these base metals to be heated and mixed together, but the result is a product that is ❌ and more ❌ than the softer copper, which cannot hold a cutting edge for long. Bronze would ❌ human societies by producing larger surpluses of agriculture and allowing for the creation of superior weapons.
As societies became more established and generated more wealth ❌ became wider. ❌, the priestly class, or military elites gained high honor and status than ordinary people. The organization of people into ❌ groups from highest to lowest is called stratification. Another way in which inequality expanded was across ❌. Sometime after the Neolithic Revolution ❌ emerged. Patriarchy refers to a social system in which males have more respect, authority, or control than females. It is hard to isolate a single cause or event that led to this form of gender inequality, but several theories have been advanced.