At all stages of education, which gender performs better?

However, although females are performing better than males in all educational areas, what should be noted?

When examining why there are gender differences in education, sociologists examine external factors that may put females at an advantage. What are the four external factors discussed?

How has the impact of feminism resulted in increased female academic success?

How have changes in the family resulted in increased female academic success?

How have changes in female employment resulted in increased female academic success?

How have changing female ambitions resulted in increased female academic success?

Which sociologist's interviews with girls in the 1970s and the 1990s show a major shift in their ambitions?

Which sociologists link this shift in ambition to individualisation?

What do Beck and Beck-Gernsheim mean when they reference 'individualisation'?

In order to achieve independence, girls now understand that they need to be educated. Carol Fuller studied girls' attitudes to education. What did she find?

However, there are class differences in how far girls' ambitions have changed. How can working-class girls' ambitions be described?

Which sociologist argues that working-class girls' gendered ambitions reflect the reality of their class position - their limited aspirations mirror the limited job opportunities they believe are available to them?

While external factors may influence gender achievement, factors within the education may also play an important role. There are six internal factors. Give examples:

Feminists believe that equal opportunities policies have a major impact on the education system. Why?

What are GIST and WISE examples of?

The National Curriculum also removed one source of gender inequality by making girls and boys study mostly the same subjects. When was the National Curriculum introduced?

Another internal factor that may have had an impact on girls' achievement is the increase in the proportion of female teachers and head-teachers. Why might this have been influential?

Alternatively, the internal factor of GCSE and coursework may have impacted girls' educational success. Which sociologist argue that they way students are assessed benefits girls?

Gorard found that the gender gap in achievement was fairly consistent until 1989, when it sharply widened. What happened this year that arguably caused this change?

Which sociologists argue that girls benefit from coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised than boys?

Why are these traits believed to be more commonly found among girls?

Some sociologists argue that the internal factor of teacher attention can be linked to the gender gap in achievement. According to Jane and Peter Finch, why do boys receive more attention?

Joan Swann also found gender differences in communication styles. What were her findings?

Why might the gender differences in communication styles explain why teachers respond better to girls?

Sociologists argue that the gender gap in achievement may also be a result of the active attempt to remove stereotypes from the curriculum. Why might this help?

Finally, the internal factor of marketisation policies may impact the gender gap. Why?

Which sociologist noted that the introduction of exam league tables has improved opportunities for girls?

While there have been changes in gender and educational achievement, sociologists differ in their interpretation of the importance of these changes. What are the two views of girls' achievements?

How do liberal feminists respond to girls' achievement?

How do radical feminists respond to girls' achievement?

While girls are more academically successful than they were in the past, this doesn't mean that all girls are successful. In particular, what factor influences girls' achievements?

Which sociologist argues that one reason for the class differences in achievement among girls is that there is a conflict between working-class girls' feminine identities and the values of the school?

What concept does Archer refer to when examining the conflict working-class girls may experience?

Archer identifies several strategies that the girls followed when creating a valued sense of self. What sort of strategies did she identify?

How do working-class girls adopt hyper-heterosexual feminine identities, according to Archer?

Girls' performance of the feminine identity brings status from their female peers. However, what does it also cause?

The school defines girls who adopt this hyper-heterosexual as incapable of educational success and less worthy of success. They therefore do not have symbolic capital. Rather, what are they subjected to?

While having a boyfriend brought symbolic capital, why can it impact girls' schooling?

Some working-class girls adopt 'loud' feminine identities that often result in them being outspoken, independent and assertive. Why does this have a negative impact on their schooling?

As such, it can be concluded that working-class girls face a dilemma. What two choices do they have?

How do some girls tried to cope with this dilemma?

What does this 'good underneath' self-image reflect?

Although working-class girls in general are likely to achieve, some do succeed and carry on into higher education. However, even these girls may be disadvantaged by their gender and class. Which sociologist found this when studying 21 working-class girls studying for their A Levels?

Evans found that the girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power. However, this was not for themselves. Why did they want to increase their earning power?

Evans also found that many working-class girls choose to remain living at home while attending university to help reduce costs. However, why did living at home while attending university negatively impact working-class students?

Living at home was not just an economic necessity - it was also a positive choice and aspect of their working-class identities. Why?

What has the gender gap in achievement given rise to?

Several factors may be responsible for boys' lack of academic success. Give examples of some of the external factors:

Which government department argues that the gender gap in achievement is primarily the result of boys' poorer literacy and language skills?

What may be one explanation for boys' poorer literacy and language skills?

Alternatively, it has been argued that the fact that mothers are more likely than fathers has resulted in boys' poorer literacy and language skills. Why?

In addition, how do boys' and girls' leisure activities impact their language and communication skills?

Another external factor that may impact boys' literacy is the decline of traditional men's jobs. When did heavy industries begin to decline?

Why have heavy industries been in decline since the 1980s?

According to Eirene Mitsos and Ken Browne, what has the decline in male employment opportunities lead to?

While there may be some truth in this claim, why can it be criticised?

Give examples of some of the internal factors that may explain boys' poorer literacy skills:

Which sociologist argues that boys fall behind because education has become feminised?

What does Tony Sewell mean when he says that education is feminised?

Sewell argues that the introduction of coursework is a major cause of gender differences in achievement. What does Sewell believe coursework should be replaced with?

Another potential external cause of boys' poorer literacy skills is the shortage of male primary school teachers. Why might this have an impact?

According to YouGov, what percentage of primary school teachers are male?

39% of 8-11 year old boys have no male teachers whatsoever. What impact does this have on them?

However, research indicates that the absence of male teachers might not be a major factor in boys' underachievement. What did Beck Francis find?

Barbara Read is critical of the view that education has become feminised. She studied the type of language teachers use to express criticism and/or disapproval. She identified two types of 'discourse'. What were they?

Which genders are the two discourses associated with?

However, what challenge to these assumptions did Read find?

Read reaches two conclusions from her findings. What are they?

In agreement with Read, which sociologists argues that rather than seeing education as feminised, we should see it as a 'masculinised educational structure that is numerically dominated by women'?

Some sociologists argue that the growth of 'laddish' subcultures has contributed to boys' underachievement. Debbie Epstein examined the way masculinity is constructed within schools. What did she find?

Becky Francis states that laddish culture is becoming increasingly widespread. Why is this, in her opinion?

Jessica Ringrose found that girls' academic success is resulting a moral panic about boys' academic failure. The moral panic reflects what fear?

Ringrose argues that the moral panic has caused a major shift in educational policy, which is now preoccupied with raising boys' achievements. What are the negative effect does this has?

We should not assume that boys are a 'lost cause', however. Which sociologist argues that the similarities in girls' and boys' achievement are far greater than the differences, especially when compared with class or ethnic differences?

It would therefore make more sense to focus on the class differences in education before tackling the gender differences in education. How much wider than the gender gap is the class gap?

Additionally, the extent to which gender influences achievement itself varies depending on a pupil's class and ethnic group. Discuss:

What does Paul Connolly conclude about the influence of gender, class and ethnicity on academic achievement?

There continues to be a fairly traditional pattern of 'boys' and 'girls' subjects. What subjects do boys typically opt for and what subjects do girls typically opt for?

The National Curriculum gives pupils little freedom to choose or drop subjects by making more subjects compulsory until the age of 16. However, where choice is possible, what do boys and girls tend to follow?

The patterns of gendered subject choices are not new. According to the Institute of Physics, the proportion of female A Level physics students is "stubbornly consistent", remaining at 20% for over 20 years. What does this call into question?

Students taking vocational courses are particularly influenced by what is a 'male' or 'female' subject. How many childcare apprentices are male?

There are a number of explanations as to why boys and girls choose different subjects. One explanation is gender role socialisation. What is this?

Schools play an important part in the socialisation process. According to Eileen Byrne, how to teachers treat the different genders?

As a result of differences in socialisation, boys and girls develop different tastes in reading. According to Patricia Murphy and Jannette Elwood, how does this subsequently impact subject choice?

Another explanation as to why boys and girls choose different subjects is that subjects have a certain 'gender image'. What does this mean?

Sociologists attempt to understand why some subjects are seen as 'boys' subjects and some are 'girls' subjects. Which sociologist argues that computer studies is seen as masculine because it involves working with machines, which is part of the male gender domain?

Interestingly, pupils who attend single-sex schools tend to hold less stereotyped subject images and make less traditional subject choice. Which sociologist found evidence to support this?

Subject choice can be influenced by peer pressure. Which sociologist found that, in an American college, male students would call girls 'lesbian' or 'butch' if they appeared to be interested in sports?

Subject choice may also be influenced by 'gendered career opportunities'. What does this term refer to?

What do women's jobs often involve?

Why does sex-typing of occupations affect boys' and girls' ideas about what kinds of job are available to them?

Why does is explanation supported by the fact that vocational courses are extremely gender-specific?

What other dimension make exist in a student's choice of vocational course?

Which class in particular may make decisions about vocational courses that are based on a traditional sense of gender identity, and why?

A child's early socialisation into a gender identity is not the only influence over their academic career. What else has an impact?

One example of internal experiences that arguably construct and reinforce gender and sexual identities is the experience of double standards. Which sociologist identifies a double standard of sexual morality within the school?

How does Lees describe this double standard of sexual morality?

What do feminists see these double standards as?

Another internal experience that may impact a student's gender and sexual identity is verbal abuse. This is something argued by a number of sociologists (e.g. Sue Lees, Carrie Paechter). What does Andrew Parker note about the verbal abuse and subsequent labels that some students face?

The enforcement of double standards and the expression of verbal abuse are both verbal aspects. However, there is also a visual aspect to the way pupils control each other's identities. What is this referred to as?

What is meant by the 'male gaze'?

How does Máirtín Mac an Ghaill see the male gaze?

Both male and female peer groups are internal experiences that construct and reinforce gender and sexual identities. Name the sociologist whose study, Learning To Labour, demonstrated how male peer groups influence a students attitude to learning:

Name the sociologist whose study of working-class girls' peer group consisting of 13- and 14-year-olds demonstrated how being positively labelled as 'popular' was crucial to the girls' identity:

Ringrose found that as the girls transitioned from a girls' friendship culture into a heterosexual culture, they faced tension. What was this tension between?

Although relationships with boys can confer symbolic capital, what can relationships with boys also be described as?

If a girl is too competitive when pursuing relationships with boys, she may be 'slut shamed'. If she is too apathetic with regards to relationships with boys, she may be 'frigid shamed'. What can shaming be regarded as?

In addition to the idealised feminine identity and the sexualised identity, a third identity does exist. What is it known as?

Girls who want to be academically successful may feel as if they have to conform to the school's notion of the ideal feminine pupil identity. Which sociologist found that this involves presenting themselves as 'asexual'?

However, by presenting themselves as asexual, what will the girls be at risk of?

Finally, research shows that teachers also play a part in reinforcing dominant definitions of gender and identity. According to Máirtín Mac an Ghaill, why do male teachers tell boys off?